UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


MEXICO; 

AZTEC,  SPANISH  AND  REPUBLICAN: 


A    HISTORICAL,   GEOGRAPHICAL,    POLITICVL,   STATISTICAL    AND    SOCIAL 

\CCOUNT  OF  THAT  COUNTRY  FROM  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  INVASION 

BY  THE   SPANIARDS   TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME; 


WITH    A    VIEW    OF    THE 


ANCIENT  AZTEC  EMPIUE  AND  CIVILIZATION; 


A  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  THE  LATE  WAR: 


AND    NOTICES    OF 


NEW    MEXICO    AND    CALIFORNIA 


BY 

15  R  A  N  T  Z     x\I  A  Y  E  R , 

FORMERLY    SECRETARY    OF    LEGATION   TO    MEXICO. 


m 


IN    TWO    VOLUMES 

VOLUME  II. 


-it 2_2 fl_ 


HARTFORD: 
S.    DRAKE   AND    COMPANY 

MDCCC^III. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850,  by 
SIDNEY    DRAKE, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


•  •  •  .  • 


a    A.    ALVOaO,    PRINTEH 

i  f   f2S>e#)irf-st.;  .v.'Y.«"« 


06'^  ■  X- 


CONTENTS. 
BOOK   IV. 

CHAPTER  I. — Absence  of  accuracy— Humboldt— Superficial  extent  of  Mexican 
Territory — Physical  structure  of  Mexico — Volcanic  mountains — Climates — Tierras  "^ 
Templadas,  Calientes,  Frias — Political  divisions  and  boundaries  of  Mexico — Old 
Spanish  divisions — Provim:es — Intendencies — States — Departments — North  boun- 
dary—Present States  and  Territories— Rivers  of  Mexico— Rivers  and  Lakes  of 
Mexico, Page  9 

CHAPTER  II.— Division  of  population— "Whites— Indians — Africans— Leperos—  n 
Rancheros — Characteristics,  Indifference,  Procrastination — Females— Better  Classes 
— ^Their  social  habits — Entertainments — Leperos — Their  habits — Evangelistas — 
Thieving — The  Ranchero — His  character  and  habits — The  Indian  race — Agricul- 
turists—Traditionary habits  adhered  to — Improvidence — Superstition — Drunken- 
ness— Indian  women — Servile  condition — Local  adhesiveness — Peonage — Whip- 
ping— Planter-life — Its  solitude  and  results — Miilenpfordt's  character  of  the  In- 
dians— Indian  tribes  and  races  in  Mexico — Table  of  castes  in  Mexico,   .         .22 

CHAPTER  III. — Population — Census — Tables  of  population — Relative  division  of 
races — Relative  intellectual  cultivation — Relative  population  in  hot  and  cold 
districts, 41 

CHAPTER  IV. — Agriculture — Dry  and  rainy  seasons — Irrigation — Yield  of  corn 
lands — Colonial  restrictions — Colonial  dependence — Bad  intercommunication — Ar- 
rieros — Corn  lands — Different  kinds  of  corn  in  Mexico— Mode  of  cukivation — 
Production — various  uses  of  corn — Bajiana — Mainoc — Rice — The  olive — Vine — 
Clyle  pepper — tomato — Frijol^Maguey — Maguey  estates — Making  Pulque — 
Aloes — Cacti, 48 

CHAPTER  V. — Estates  in  the  valleys  of  Cuernavaca  and  Cuautla — Mexican  haci- 
endas— Sugar  regions — Coffee — Its  yield — ^Tobacco — Orizaba — Chiapas,  etc. — In- 
digo— Colton^Maiiufactures  encouraged  in  Mexico — No  new  agricultural  popula-'"! 
tion — New  manufacturing   population — Production    of  cotton — Vainilla — Jalap —     ( 
Cacao— Cochineal — Its  production  emd  quantity — Silk — Fruits — Agricultural  pros- 
pects— Grazing,  and  not  an  agricultural  country, G2 

CHAPTER  VI. — Reflections  on  emigration — Advantages  of  America — Land  and 
labor — Mines  wrought  by  Aztecs — Mining  districts  and  extent  in  Mexico — Errors 
as  to  early  supply  of  metals  from  America — True  period  of  abundance — Mines 
not  exhausted — Condition — Families  enriched — Effect  of  mining  on  Agriculture — 
Relative  product  of  silver  for  ten  years — ^Table  of  product — Yield  of  the  mines 
since  the  Conquest — Coinage  in  1844 — ^Total  coinage  1535  to  1850,  .         .     76 

CHAPTER  VII.— Income  of  New  Spain  1809— Expenses  of  New  Spain  1809— 
Mineral  productions — Military  force— Agriculture — Manufactures — Commerce —  "^ 
Exports — Imports — Present  commerce — Imports — Exports — Nineteen  years  trade 
between  the  United  States  and  Mexico — Character  of  imports — Character  of  ex- 
ports— Silver  exported — Fairs  in  Mexico — The  future  prospects  and  position  of 
Mexico — Not  a  commercial  country — Railway  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  city  of 
Mexico,  93 


4  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VIII. — Disorder  of  Mexican  finances — Enormous  usury — Character  of 
financial  operations — Expenses  of  administrations — Analysis  of  Mexican  debt- 
Comparison  of  income  and  outlay — Deficit 107 

/    r-  CHAPTER    IX. — Table  of   cotton  factories    in   Mexico — Consumption — Produc- 

\         tion — Increase  of  factories — Day  and  night  work — Deficit  of  material — Water  and 

steam  power — Mexican  manufactures  generally, 112 

CHAPTER  X. — The  military  in  Mexico  before  aiid  after  the  revolution — Confirma- 
tion of  army — Its  political  use — Character  of  Mexican  soldiers — Recruiting — 
Tactics — Officers — Drajnatic  character  of  army — Recriminations — Condition  of  the 
army  at  the  peace — Army  on  the  northern  frontier — Military  colonies — Character 
of  the  tribes — Fortresses — Perote — Acapulco — San  Juan  de  Ulua — Reorganization 
of  the  army — Tabular  view  of  men  and  Materiel — Navy — Extent  of  coast  on  both 
seas — Naval  establishment — Vessels  and  officers — Expenses  of  war  and  navy,  116 

CHAPTER  XI. — Relations  between  the  Mexican  church  and  the  Pope — Clergy — 
Monks — Nuns — Monasteries — Convents — Wealth  of  tlie  church — Ratio  of  clergy 
and  people — High  and  low  clergy — their  history — vices — Monks — Rural  clergy — 
Their  character — Conduct  of  clergy,  public  and  private — Missions  in  California — 
Mode  of  conversion — Monks  in  Mexico — Zavala's  strictures — Pazo's  strictures  on 
/South  American  clergy — Church  in  the  United  States  and  in  Mexico — Constitu- 
V     tional  protection  of  Catholicism — Duty  of  the  church — Bulls — Paper  money,     130 

CHAPTER  XII. — ^Various  changes  of  the  Mexican  constitution — Present  organiza- 
tion of  the  national  and  state  governments — Constitution  of  1847 — Legislative  and 
judiciary — National  and  state — Judiciary — Administration  of  justice — Civil  and 
criminal  process — Mal-administration  of  justice — Prisons — Crime — Accordada — 
Condition  of  prisons — Statistics  of  crime  in  the  capital — Garrotte — Mexican 
opinions,        .............     144 

CHAPTER  XIII. — What  Mexico  has  done — Review  of  her  conduct  and  character 
— Mexican  opinions — Classes — Indians — Mestizos — Whites — Army — Church — 
Divisions  of  whites — want  of  Homogeneonsness — Want  of  nationality  and  of  a 
people — Remedies — Emigration — Religious  liberty — political  order — Labor,       155 

BOOK     V. 

CHAPTER  I. — Division  of  Mexico  into  States — Eastern,  western,  interior — Yuca- 
tan— Boundai'ies,  departments,  population,  districts,  towns,  parishes,  productions, 
principal  towns,  islands,  harbors — Chiapas — Boundaries,  produ^s,  departments, 
towns,  rivers,  population — Remains  in  Yucatan  and  Chiapas — Discoveries  of  Ste- 
phens, Catlierwood,  Norman,  etc. — Palenqne — Uxmal — Yucatan  calendar — Yuca- 
tan, Chiapan,  Mechoacan,  Nicai'agua  and*  Mexican  months — Yucatese  and  Chia- 

pan    cycle — Yucatese  and  Mexican  solar  year — Differences — Yucatese  months 

Tabasco — Boundai-ies,  rivers,  lagune,  inhabitants,  productions,  towns  ajid  villages, 

Page  165 

CHAPTER  II. — Boundaries  of  Vera  Cruz — Rivers,  lagunes,  mineral  spni.gs,  pop- 
ulation, political  divisions,  productions,  cattle,  cities,  towns — Vera  Cruz — Its  dis- 
eases— Meteorological  observations  at — Water  fallen  at  Vera  Cruz — Orizaba — As- 
cent of    the   mountain — Magnificent  views — Difficulties — The     crater    extinct 

Elevation  of  the   mountain — Descent — Antiquities  in    the   state  of  Vera   Cruz 

Ruins  at  Panucp,  Chacuaco,  San  Nicolas,  La  Trinidad — Small  figures — Papantla 
— Descri))tion  of  the  pyramid — Ruins  at  Mapilca — Pyramid  and   temple  at  Tusa- 

pan — Isle  of  Sacrificios — Misantia — Remains  near  Puente  Naclonal — Tamaulipas 

Boundaries,  rivers,  lagunes,  climate,  population,  productions,  towns — Antiquities 
of  Tamaulipas— Topila — Rancho  de  las  piedras — Sculpture — Remains,  etc.,  etc. 

Page  183 


/} 


CONTENTS.  '5 

CHAPTER  III. — Oajaca — Extent,  Boundaries,  Geology,  Valley,  Indians,  Depart- 
ments, Population,  Mines,  Ports,  Productions,  Cattle,  Towns,  Ancient  remains — 
Mitla — The  palace — Tombs — Antiquarian  speculations — connection  of  Mexican  re- 
mains— duiotepec,  or  Cerro  de  las  Juntas, 210 

CHAPTER  IV. — Puebla — Divisions,  productions,  factories — River — Streams — Pu- 
ebla  de  los  Angeles — Cathedral — Towns — Mines — duarries — Mountains — Popo- 
catepetl— Atlixco — Olivares — Ascent  of  the  mountain — The  crater — Elevation — 
Pyramid  of  Cholula — Visit  to  the  pyramid — Correct  dimensions — Territory  of 
Tlascala — History^ — Position — Size — Productions — Towns,   ....     220 

CHAPTER  V. — State  of  Mexico — Area,  Divisions,  Population,  Federal  district, 
Valley,  Highways,  Lakes — Zumpango — Cristovol — Chalco — Xochimiico — ^Tezco- 
00 — Salt-works — Cities — San  Augustin — Festival — ^Tezcoco,  Tacuba,  Toluca — Cas- 
cade of  Regla — Towns — Valley  of  Cuernavaca — Acapantzingo — Its  Indian  isola- 
tion— Mines  in  the  state, 7    233 

• 

CHAPTER  VI. — Description  of  the  city  of  Mexico — Cathedral — Its  architecture 
and  riches — The  Palace,  University,  Market,  Chamber  of  Deputies,  etc. — Portalea 
— Mineria — La  Merced — San  Domingo — Characters  and  costumes — Paseos — Ala- 
meda— Aqueducts — Passeo  Nuevo  and  de  la  Viga — Alameda — Description  of  it — 
Life  in  Mexico — ^Theatres — Opera — Domestic  life — Genuine  but  cautious  hospi- 
tality— Legend  of  the  virgin  of  Guadalupe,    .         .         .         .         .         .         .     244 

CHAPTER  VII.— Antiquities  in  the  museum— Statue  of  Charles  IV.— Condition 
of  the  museum — Feathered  serpents — Vieeroy's  portraits — Cortez — Portrait — Ar- 
mor— Pedro  de  Alvarado — Images — Vases — Tezcoco — Palace — Trough — Massive 
mounds — Tescocingo — Hill — Its  ancient  adornments — Ancient  bellevue  and  res- 
ervoir— Tezcocan  splendor — Bosque  del  Contador — Ponds — Lakes — Arbors — Py- 
ramids of  Teotihuacan — Houses  of  sun  and  moon — Path  of  the  dead — Carved 
pillar — Pillar  at  Otumba — Pyramid  of  Xochicalco — Hill  of  Xochicalco — Its  struc- 
tures,      266 

CHAPTER  VIII.— State  of  Mechoacan— Boundaries— Elevations— Volcano  of  Jo- 
rullo — Theories  of  Humboldt  and  Lyell — Present  condition — Rivers  of  Mechoa- 
can— Climate,  Health,  Indians,  Departments,  Agriculture,  Towns,  Mines — Jalisco 
— Boundaries,  Population,  Rivers,  Lakes,  Divisions,  Manufactures,  Agriculture, 
Factories — Guadalajara — Towns — San  Juan  de  los  Lagos — ^Tepic — San  Bias — 
Mines,  Islands,  Mining  region,  Indians^jCharacter  and  Habits,  Church  and 
School,  Education,  Bishopric — Territory  of  Colima — Extent,  Climate,  Produc- 
tions, Towns, 286 

CHAPTER  IX. — Sinaloa — Boundaries,  Climate,  Divisions,  Indians,  Products, 
Towns,  Mines — Sonora — Boundaries,  Divisions,  Rivers,  Climate,  Indians,  Trade, 
Towns,  Mines — Territory  of  Lower  California — Boundaries,  Character,  Popula- 
tion, Products,  Pearls,  Salt,  Mines,  Seals,  Whales,  Climate,  Ports,  towns.  Popu- 
lation— State  of  Guerrero 298 

CHAPTER  X. — State  of  Clueretaro — Boundaries,  Divisions,  Characteristics, 
Rivers,  Population  and  climate.  Districts,  etc..  Agricultural  products.  Forests, 
Factories,  Cities,  Mines — State  of  Guanajuato — Boundaries,  Extent,  Soil — Lake 
Yurirapundaro — Climate,  Effect  of  maladies — Productions,  Vine,  Olive — Divisions 
— Population — City  of  Guanajuato — Towns  in  the  state — Hacienda  of  Jaral — 
Mines — Silver,  Copper,  Lead,  Cinnabar — Zacatecas — Boundaries,  Extent,  Agricul- 
ture, Divisions,  Population,  Towns — Zacatecas — Aguas  Calientes,  etc. — Product 
and  value  of  Zacatecan  mines — Ruins  of  Quemada  in  Zacatecas,  .         .     306 

CHAPTER  XI. — State  of  San  Luis  Potosi — Boundaries,  Lakes,  Rivers,  Climate, 
Departments,  Products — San  Luis — Towns — Mining  region — New  Leon — Boun- 
daries,  Character,  Rivers,   Climate,    Departments — Agriculture — Grazing,  etc.— 


b  CONTENTS. 

Monterey — Coahuila — Boundary,  Position,  Climate,  Productions,  Towns — State 
of  Durango — Boundary,  Character,  Divisions,  Streams,  Productions — City  of  Du- 
rango — Towns,  Mines,  Iron,  Silver — Indian  necrology — Cave  burial,    .         .     324 

CHAPTER  XII. — State  of  Chihuahua — Position,  Boundaries,  Extent,  Character- 
istics, Rivers,  Lakes,  Indians,  Divisions,  Climate,  Productions — Cattle  estates — 
Mint— Mines — Principal  towns — Chihua'htia — El  Paso  del  Norte — Military  impor- 
tance— El  Paso  vnne,  etc. — Antiquities — Indian  ravages — The  Bolson  de  Mapimi 
— Mexican  modes  of  travelling  and  transportation — Litera — Mules — Arrieros — 
Conducta — Coaches — Freight  wagons — Mexican  habit  of  Home-staying — want  of 
exploration — Modern  advancement, 334 

Appendix  No.  1 — Profile  of  the   Plateau — Mexico  to  Santa  F6 — Santa  Fe  to  the 

Gulf, 346 

Appendix  No.  2 — Mexican  Coins,  Weights  and  Measures,       ....    347 

BOOK    VI. 

TERRITORY  OF  NEW  MEXICO.— Exploration  of  the  far  west— Long,  Nicol- 
let, Fremont — Santa  Fe  trade — First  adventurers — Caravans — New  Mexico  erected 
by  Congress  into  a  territory — Geological  structure  of  New  Mexico — The  Rio 
Grande — Its  value — Soil — Products — Irrigation — Cattle — Indians — Mines — Gold — 
Silver — Copper — Iron — Gypsum — Salt — Climate — Pueblo  Indians — Wild  Indiana 
enumerated — Number  of  Pueblo  Indians — Census — Proximate  present  population — 
Character  of  people  and  government — Santa  Fe — Alburquerque — Valley  of  Toas — 
Statistics  of  Santa  Fe  trade,  etc. — Itinerary  from  Fort  Leavenworth  to  Santa  F6 
and  El  Paso, 351 

STATE  OF  CALIFORNIA.— Title  to  the  region— Missionary  settlement,  its  pur- 
poses— Character  of  California — Secularization  of  missions — Population  in  mis- 
sions— Agricultural  statistics — Cattle — Hides — Tallow — Herdsmen — Trad* — The 
war — Condition  of  California  at  its  close — Progress  of  settlement  and  law — Con- 
stitution adopted — Admission  as  a  state — Former  boundaries — The  great  Basin — 
Utah — Great  Salt  Lake — Pyramid  lake — Rivers — Present  state  boundaries — Area — 
Geography — Sacramento — San  Joaquin — Shastl  peak, 367 

STATE  OF  CALIFORNIA  CONTINUED.— Configuration  of  the  state— Bay  of 
San  Francisco  and  city — Rivers  of  California — Character  of  soil,  etc. — Relative 
sterility  and  productiveness — Climate — Dry  and  wet  seasons — Causes  of  change — 
Climate  in  San  Francisco,  coast  range  valleys  and  interior  valley — Area  of  arable 
and  grazing  land — Productions — Discovery  of  gold — Its  position — The  placeres — 
Washing — Digging — The  Mines — Calculations  as  to  the  yield  of  the  mines — Gold 
yielded  by  California — Its  quality — Q.uick.silver  mines — Commerce — Population — 
Growth  of  cities — Old  presidios — Towns — Land  titles — Mission  lands — Con- 
clusion,   378 

Appendix. — Meteorological  Observations  in  California,  .  ...    398 


BOOK    IV. 

GEOLOGICAL   AND   GEOGRAPHICAL   STRUCTURE   OF 

MEXICO  — POLITICAL   DIVISIONS  — POPULATION; 

PRODUCTIONS  —  MINES  —AGRICULTURE ; 

MANUFACTURES  —  COMMERCE  —  FINANCES  —  ARMY ; 

NAVY  — CHURCH— CONSTITUTION  AND  LAWS; 

NATIONAL   CONDITION. 


BOOK    IV. 


CHAPTER    I. 

Geological    and    Geographical    Structure    of    Mexico  — 

Extent. 


absence  of  accuracy HUMBOLDT. SUPERFICIAL  EXTENT  OF 

.    MEXICAN     TERRITORY. PHYSICAL     STRUCTURE    OF    MEXICO 

VOLCANIC  MOUNTAINS CLIMATES TIERRAS  TEMPLADAS,  CA- 

LIENTES,    FRIAS. POLITICAL    DIVISIONS    AND    BOUNDARIES    OP 

MEXICO. OLD  SPANISH  DIVISIONS PROVINCES INTENDEN- 

CIES STATES DEPARTMENTS. NORTH  BOUNDARY PRES- 
ENT STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. RIVERS  OF  MEXICO. RIVERS 

AND    LAKES    OF    MEXICO. 

It  is  unfortunate  that,  notwithstanding  the  rich  mineralogical 
and  agricultural  character  of  Mexico,  no  thoroughly  accurate  sur- 
vey or  geological  examination  has  ever  been  made  of  the  whole 
country.  There  is  no  complete  map  of  the  territory  which  may  be 
confidently  relied  on.  The  enterprise  of  developing  Mexico,  since 
the  foundation  of  the  colonial  government  by  Spain  has  been  almost 
entirely  abandoned  to  private  enterprise,  and,  consequently  the 
valuable  information,  collected  by  individuals,  either  perished  in 
their  hands  after  it  had  been  used  for  their  own  benefit,  or,  if  im- 
parted to  the  government,  has  never  been  united  and  collated  with 
other  accounts  and  reconnoissances  which  were  in  the  hands  of  na- 
tional authorities.  A  great  deal  was  done  by  Baron  Alexander 
Humboldt,  during  his  visit  to  New  Spain  early  in  this  century,  to- 
wards gathering  the  geographical,  geological  and  statistical  infor- 
mation which  was  then  in  existence,  though  scattered,  far  and 
wide,  over  the  viceroyalty,  in  a  thousand  different  hands.  His 
voluminous  work  is  an  enduring  monument  to  his  industry  and 
talent ;  but  there  is  necessarily  a  great  deal  of  it  that  was  altogether 
transitory  in  its  character  both  on  account  of  the  political  and  social 
revolution  which  has  since  occurred,  and  in  consequence  of  the 
opening,  by  the  republic,  of  Mexican  ports  to  the  commerce  of  the 
world. 

Nevertheless,  at  the  period  of  Humboldt's  visit,  the  main  bold 
geographical  and  geological  features  of  Mexico  were  sufficiently 
well  known  for  practical  purposes,  and  as  his  descriptions  have,  in 


10  SUPERFICIAL    EXTENT    OF    MEXICAN    TERRITORY. 

most  cases,  stood  the  test  of  criticism  during  near  half  a  century,  we 
may  still  safely  appeal  to  him,  and  to  his  industrious  countryman, 
Muhlenpfordt,  ^  as  the  most  reliable  authorities  upon  these  topics. 

According  to  Humboldt,  Mexico  presented  a  surface  of  one  hun- 
dred and  eighteen  thousand  four  hundred  and  seventy-eight  square 
leagues,  of  twenty-five  to  the  degree,  yet  this  calculation  did  not  in- 
clude the  space  between  the  northern  extremity  of  New  Mexico  and 
Sonora,  and  the  American  boundary  of  1819.  Thirty-six  thousand 
five  hundred  square  leagues,  comprising  the  States  of  Zacatecas, 
Guadalajara,  Guanajuato,  Michoacan,  Mexico,  Puebla,  Vera  Cruz, 
Oajaca,  Tabasco,  Yucatan,  Chiapas,  were  within  the  torrid  zone; 
while  New  Mexico,  Durango,  New  and  Old  California,  Sonora  and 
a  great  part  of  the  old  Intendancy  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  containing 
in  all  eighty-six  thousand  square  leagues,  were  under  the  tempe- 
rate zone.  2 

A  more  recent,  and,  generally,  an  accurate  writer,^  has  estimated 
the  boundaries  of  Mexico,  prior  to  the  treaty  of  1848,  at  Guada- 
lupe, between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  to  have  embraced  an 
area  of  one  million  six  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  square  miles, 
including  Texas.  .  By  the  treaty  just  mentioned  we  acquired  an 
undisputed  title  to  Texas,  and  a  territorial  cession  of  New  Mexico 
and  Upper  California. 

Texas  is  estimated  to  contain,  325,520  square  miles. 

New  Mexico     "  "  77,387      "         " 

Upper  California  "  448,691       "         " 


851,598  "  "4 
If  we,  therefore,  deduct  from  the  preceding  estimate  of  one  mil- 
lion six  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  square  miles,  the  sum  of  eight 
hundred  and  fifty-one  thousand  five  hundred  and  ninety-eight 
square  miles,  we  shall  have,  as  the  best  approximate  calculation, 
that  we  can  now  make,  seven  hundred  and  ninety-eight  thousand 
four  hundred  and  two  square  miles,  for  the  total  superficial  extent 
of  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  as  at  present  bounded  since  the  ratifi- 
cation of  our  recent  international  treaty.  By  that  negotiation  it 
consequently  appears  that  we  have  obtained  one  half  the  former 
territory  of  Mexico  and  twenty-six  thousand  five  hundred  and 
ninety-eight  square  miles  besides. 

•  Muhlenpfordt  —  Die  Republik  Mexico :  Hanover,  1844,  2  vols. 
»  Ward,  vol.  1,  p.  7.  ^  Folsom's  Mexico  in  1842,  p.  29. 

■•  See  maps  and  tables  of  areas  of  the  several  states  of  our  Union  accompanying 
the  President's  message  of  December,  1848. 


PHYSICAL   STRUCTURE   OF  MEXICO VOLCANIC  MOUNTAINS.     11 

The  geological  structure  or  physiognomy  of  Mexico  is  peculiar. 
The  great  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  which  traverses  the  whole  of 
South  America,  from  its  southernmost  limit,  is  exceedingly  de- 
pressed at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  where  its  gentle  swells  serve 
merely  to  form  a  barrier  between  the  union  of  the  Pacific  and  At- 
lantic. But,  as  soon  as  this  massive  chain  enters  the  broader 
portion  of  North  America,  it  divides  into  two  gigantic  arms,  to  the 
east  and  west  along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  and  of  the  Pacific,  which 
support  between  them  a  continuous  lofty  platform,  or  series  of  table 
lands,  crossed,  broken,  and  intersected  by  innumerable  and  abrupt 
sierras^  some  of  which  rise  to  the  height  of  seventeen  thousand  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  geological  structure  prevails 
throughout  the  whole  of  Mexico,  as  now  bounded ;  for,  at  the  Rio 
Grande,  the  southern  limit  of  Texas,  the  land  sinks  to  comparative 
levels,  and  affords  channels  for  the  numerous  and  important  streams 
with  which,  Louisiana,  Florida  and  Texas  are  abundantly  irrigated. 
Whilst  this  is  the  case  on  the  northern  and  eastern  confines  of 
Mexico,  the  ivcstern  portion  is  still  traversed  by  the  main  body  of 
the  gigantic  Cordillera,  which,  penetrating  California  with  its  icy 
peaks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  passes  onward  to  the  north  until  its 
rocky  walls  are  lost,  beyond  Oregon,  in  the  wilderness  that  bounds 
the  Frozen  Sea.  ^ 

The  reader  who  pictures  to  himself  such  a  country  will  easily 
understand  that  all  temperatures  are  gained  in  Mexico  on  the  same 
parallel  of  latitude,  —  or  that  eternal  heat  and  eternal  frost  are  en- 
countered in  crossing  the  country  in  a  straight  line  from  Vera  Cruz 
to  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  a  country  hanging  on  the  two  slopes  of 
a  mountain,  one  of  which  descends  to  the  Gulf  and  the  other  to  the 
Western  Ocean  ;  and  the  traveller,  in  penetrating  it,  even  by  the 
road  usually  traversed  by  public  conveyances,  must  attain  a  height 
of  ten  thousand  six  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  before  he  begins  to 
descend  into  the  valley  of  Mexico,  which  is,  still,  seven  thousand 
five  hundred  and  forty-eight  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea !     Thus 

'  The  high  table  land  of  Mexico  which  we  have  described,  is  said  to  owe  its  pre- 
sent form  to  the  circumstance  that  an  ancient  system  of  valleys  in  a  chain  of  gra- 
nitic mountains,  has  been  filled  up  to  the  height  of  many  thousand  feet  with  various 
Volcanic  products.  Five  active  volcanos  traverse  Mexico  from  west  to  east,— 
Tuxtla,  Orizaba,  Popocatepetl,  Jorullo,  and  Colima.  JoruUa  which  is  in  tlie  cen- 
tre of  the  great  platform  is  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  from  th© 
nearest  ocean,  which  is  an  important  circumstance,  shoAving  that  proximity  to  the 
sea  is  not  a  necessary  condition  although  certainly  a  very  general  characteristic  of 
the  position  of  active  volcanos.  If  the  line  which  connects  these  five  volcanic  vent* 
in  Mexico  be  prolonged  westerly,  it  cuts  the  volcanic  group  in  the  Pacific  called 
the  group  of  RevilJa-Gigedo.  —  Lyell's  Geology,  American  edition,  vol.  1,  p.  294 


12        CLIMATES TIERRAS    TEMPLADAS,    CALIENTES,    FRIAS. 

it  is,  that  throughout  the  table  lands,  the  geographical  position,  as 
far  as  latitude  is  concerned,  is  entirely  neutralized  by  the  extreme 
rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere  obtained  by  ascending  through  loftier 
regions.  Humboldt  graphically  declares  that  climates  succeed  each 
other  in  strata  or  layers,  as  we  pass  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  capital, 
or  from  the  capital,  descend  to  Acapulco  or  San  Bias  on  the 
west  coast,  —  beholding  in  our  varied  journey,  the  whole  scale  of 
vegetable  life.  The  wild  abundance  of  vegetation  on  the  shore  of 
the  Gulf,  —  its  beautiful  palms  whose  stems  are  wreathed  by  a 
myriad  of  impenetrable  parasites  which  grow  with  such  rank  luxu 
fiance  in  the  hot  and  humid  air  of  the  tropics,  —  are  exchanged, 
as  we  begin  to  rise  from  the  level  of  the  sea,  for  hardier  forest  trees. 
At  Jalapa  the  air  is  milder,  though  the  vapors  from  the  Gulf  which 
concentrate  and  condense  at  about  this  height  on  the  sides  of  the 
mountains,  sustain  the  perpetual  freshness  of  the  verdure.  Further 
on,  the  oak  and  the  orange  give  place  to  the  fir  and  pine.  Here 
the  rarefied  air  becomes  pure,  thin  and  perfectly  transparent ;  but 
as  it  necessarily  lacks  moisture,  which  condenses  below  this  region, 
the  vegetation  is  neither  so  luxuriant  nor  so  constantly  vigorous. 
Great  plains  or  basins,  spread  out  in  silent  and  melancholy  vistas 
before  the  traveller,  —  many  of  them,  cold,  bleak  and  lonely  moors, 
whose  dreary  levels  sadden  the  heart  of  the  spectator.  The  sun 
which  comes  down  through  the  cloudless  medium  of  an  atmosphere 
unscreened  by  the  usual  curtain  of  vapor,  parches  and  crisps  the 
thirsty  soil,  whilst  the  winds  that  sweep  uninterruptedly  over  the 
unbroken  expanse,  fill  the  air,  during  the  dry  season,  with  sand  and 
dust.  These  high  barren  plains  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the 
centre  of  the  country  between  Zacatecas,  Durango  and  Saltillo  ; 
and  such  is  in  fact  the  character  of  large  portions  of  the  whole  of 
Mexico,  except  when  the  comparatively  level  nature  of  the  soil  per- 
mits the  small  rivulets  that  filter  from  the  Cordillera  through  the 
narrow  vallies,  to  form  themselves  into  rivers  which  may  be  used 
for  irrigation.  Wherever  this  is  the  case  nature  at  once  recovers 
her  vifjor  under  the  influence  of  heat  and  moisture. 

These  physical  features,  and  consequent  diversities  of  tempera- 
ture, have  caused  the  division  of  Mexico,  as  it  rises  from  the  two 
Oceans,  into  three  regions,  or  superficial  strata,  which  are  called, 
the  tierras  calientes,  or  hot  lands ;  the  tierras  templadas,  or  tem- 
perate  lands ;  and  the  tierras  frias  or  cold  lands.  The  tierra 
caliente  covers  chiefly  that  portion  of  the  territory  which  lies  on 
the  borders  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific ;  yet  it  is  not  confined 
exclusively  to  the  coast,  inasmuch  as  all  those  parts  of  Mexico 
in  which  there  is  heat  and  moisture  enough  to  produce  the  fruits 


POLITICAL    DIVISIONS    AND    BOUNDARIES    OF    MEXICO.  13 

and  maladies  of  the  tropics,  are  classed  under  this  head.  The 
tierra  fria  comprises  the  mountainous  districts  rising  above  the 
level  of  the  capital  up  to  the  limit  of  constant  snow ;  while  the 
tierra  templada  embraces  those  milder  middle  regions  not  com- 
prehended in  the  two  other  sections.  Classing  them  by  elevation 
in  feet  ^  we  may  suppose  that  the  tierras  calientes  extend  to  between 
3,000  and  4,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  the  tierras  tem- 
pladas  to  between  4  and  8,000  feet ;  and  that  the  tierras  frias 
embrace  all  the  remaining  portions  up  to  the  region  of  eternal  ice. 

Political  Divisions  and  Boundaries  of  Mexico. 

It  is,  perhaps,  more  of  historical  or  antiquarian  interest,  than 
of  actual  present  value,  to  recur  to  the  ancient  divisions  of 
the  viceroyalty  of  New  Spain.  Nevertheless,  there  are  readers 
who  are  naturally  anxious  to  trace  the  territorial  aggrandizement 
as  well  as  the  recent  curtailment  of  Mexico,  and  we  have,  there- 
fore, thought  it  proper  to  present  a  picture  of  the  limits  and 
apportionment  of  the  country  at  several  periods. 

The  territorial  limits  of  that  region  generally  called  New  Spain, 
were  comprised  between  the  degrees  of  15°  58'  and  42°  of  north 
latitude  ;  and  between  89°  4'  and  126°  48'  45"  west  longitude  from 
Paris, — calculating  from  the  easternmost  point  ©f  Cape  Catoche, 
in  Yucatan,  to  the  extreme  western  limit  of  the  land  at  Cape 
Mendocino,  in  California.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Carribean 
Sea  bounded  this  country  on  the  east  and  south-east ;  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the  west ;  ^  Guatemala  on  the  south;  and  the  United 
States,  on  the  north.  There  was  a  multitude  of  islands  compre- 
hended under  this  territorial  dominion.  On  the  east  coast  of 
Yucatan  were  the  isles  of  Holvas,  Comboy,  Mugeres,  Cancun, 
Cozumel  and  Ubero ;  —  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  island  of 
Bermejos  and  several  smaller  ones  ;  —  in  the  Pacific,  the  isles  of 
Revilla-gigedo,  of  Maria,  Cedros,  San  Clemente,  Santa  Catalina, 
San  Nicolas,  Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Cruz,  San  Bernardo,  San 
Miguel ;  —  and  in  the  Gulf  of  California,  or  Cort^z,  the  isles  of 
Cerralvo,  Espiritu  Santo,  San  Jose,  Santa  Cruz,  Carmen,  Tor- 
tugas,  Tiburon,  Santa  Inez,  and  numerous  insignificant  islets  or 
keys. 

The  limit  between  the  United  States  and  New  Spain  was  defined 
by  a  treaty  negotiated  between  the  Chevalier  de  Onis,  then  Spanish 
minister  at  Washington,  and  John  Quincy  Adams,  American  Sec- 
retary of  State,  after  long  and  learned  historical  as  well  as  legal  dis- 
cussions of  territorial  rights  and  limits,  which  the  student  will  find, 


14  OLD    SPANISH    DIVISIONS. 

at  large,  in  the  second  and  fourth  volumes  of  "  American  State 
Papers,"  published  by  the  government  of  the  United  States.  This 
treaty  was  signed  on  the  22d  of  February,  1819,  and,  according  to 
its  third  article,  the  boundary  between  Mexico  and  Louisiana, 
which  was  then  ceded  to  the  Union,  cBmmenced  with  the  rivei 
Sabine  at  its  entrance  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  about  latitude 
29°,  west  longitude  94°,  and  followed  its  course  as  far  as  its 
juncture  with  the  Red  river  of  Natchitoches,  which  then  served 
to  mark  the  frontier  up  to  the  100th  degree  of  west  longitude, 
whence  the  line  ran  directly  north  to  the  river  Arkansas,  which  it 
followed  to  its  source  at  the  42d°  of  north  latitude,  —  whence 
another  straight  line  was  drawn  upon  the  said  42d  parallel,  to  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

This  line,  it  was  supposed,  would  interpose  a  perpetual  barrier 
of  wilderness,  tenanted  only  by  Indians  and  wild  animals,  between 
the  republic  of  the  north  and  the  treasured  colonies  of  the  Spanish 
crown.  But  subsequent  events  have  shown  in  the  course  of  little 
more  than  the  quarter  of  a  century,  how  rapidly  the  population  of 
the  old  world  and  the  new  has  swelled  beyond  the  limits  prescribed 
by  statesmen,  until  the  savage  and  the  beast  have  been  made  to 
yield  their  hunting  grounds  and  forests  for  the  nse  of  civilized 
man. 

At  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any  authentic  informa- 
tion, this  territory  of  Spain  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of 
Mexico,  New  Galicia,  and  New  Leon ;  the  colony  of  New  San- 
tander  ;  and  the  provinces  of  Coahuila,  Texas,  New  Biscay,  Sonora, 
New  Mexico  and  the  two  Californias.  This  arrangement  was 
extremely  indefinite ;  but,  in  1776,  the  country  was  divided  into 
twelve  intendancies  :  Merida,  Oajaca,  Vera  Cruz,  Puebla,  Mexico, 
Valladolid,  Guanajuato,  Guadalajara,  Zacatecas,  San  Luis  Potosi, 
New  Biscay,  and  Sonora  ;  and  the  three  provinces  of  New  Mexico, 
and  Alta  and  Nueva  California.  The  intendancy  of  San  Luis 
Potosi,  included  New  Leon,  New  Santander,  Coahuila  and  Texas, 
and  San  Luis  Potosi,  proper;  —  the  intendancy  of  New  Biscay 
embraced  the  provinces  of  Durango  and  Chihuahua ;  and  the 
intendancy  of  Sonora  took  in  the  provinces  of  Sinaloa,  Ostimuri, 
and  Sonora.  Each  intendancy  was  subdivided  into  suhdelegaciones. 
Another  division  cut  off  New  Spain,  proper,  from  the  Provincias 
Internas.  These  last  named  provinces  included  all  the  territory 
lying  north  and  northwesterly  of  the  intendancies  of  Zacatecas  and 
Guadalajara,  or  the  kingdom  of  Nueva  Gallicia.  The  ^^  Provincias 
Internas  del  Vireynato,^^  must  be  distinguished  from  the  "  Provin- 


PROVINCES INTENDENCIES STATES,    DEPARTMENTS.         15 

das  Intemas  de  la  Commandancia  de  Chihuahuay-^  which,  in  1779, 
were  comprised  in  a  General-Captaincy.  The  two  intendancies 
New  Biscay  and  Sonora,  then  part  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  belonged  to 
the  provinces  of  Coahuila  and  Texas.  The  interior  provinces  of 
the  viceroyalty  were  the  intendancy  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  including 
the  provinces  of  New  Leon  and  New  Santander.  The  actual 
kingdom  of  New  Spain  was  composed  of  the  intendancies  of 
Mexico,  Puebla,  Vera  Cruz,  Guadalajara,  Valladolid,  Zacatecas, 
Guanajuato,  Oajaca,  Merida,  and  San  Luis,  proper,  and  the  two 
Californias.  In  the  year  1807,  the  "  Provincias  Intemas^''  were 
divided  into  western  and  eastern,  and  two  general  commandancies 
created. 

1st.  The  Provincias  Intemas  Occidentales,  or  Western,  were  the 
intendancies  of  Sonora,  Durango,  with  Chihuahua  (new  Biscay) ; 
the  province  of  New  Mexico,  and  the  two  Californias. 

2d.  The  Provincias  Intemas  Orientates,  or  Eastern,  were,  Coa- 
huila, Texas,  New  Santander  and  New  Leon. 

Such  were  the  main  territorial  divisions  of  New  Spain  during 
the  concluding  years  of  the  Spanish  government,  —  whilst  the 
revolution  was  in  progress, —  and  until  the  nineteen  provinces  of 
the  empire  of  Iturbide  were  erected  by  the  federal  constitution  of 
1824  into  the  nineteen  States  of  Chiapas,  Chihuahua,  Coahuila  and 
Texas,  Durango,  Guanajuato,  Mexico,  Michoacan  (Valladolid), 
New  Leon,  Oajaca,  Puebla,  Queretaro,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Sonora 
and  Sinaloa,  Tabasco,  Tamaulipas,  Vera  Cruz,  Jalisco  (Guadala- 
jara,) Yucatan,  and  Zacatecas,  —  and  the  Territories  of  Old 
and  New  California,  Colima,  New  Mexico,  and  Tlascala.  In  1830 
the  State  of  Sinaloa  and  Sonora,  separated  into  its  natural  divi- 
sions, since  which  each  has  been  a  distinct,  independent  State.  In 
1836,  the  revolution  which  destroyed  this  federal  constitution, 
changed  these  States  into  Departments;  by  which  name  they 
were  recognized  until  the  month  of  May,  1847,  when  the  old 
federal  constitution  of  1824,  with  some  amendments,  was  re- 
enacted,  and  the  departments  once  more  converted  into  states; 
whilst  provision  was  made  for  the  creation  of  the  new  state  of 
Guerrero,  to  be  composed  of  the  districts  of  Acapulco,  Chilapa, 
Tasco  and  Talpa,  and  the  municipality  of  Coyucan  —  the  three 
first  of  which  pertain  to  the  state  of  Mexico,  the  fourth  to  Puebla, 
and  the  fifth  to  Michoacan, —  provided  these  three  states  gave 
their  consent  within  three  months  from  the  21st  of  May,  1847,  at 
which  period  the  act  reforming  the  constitution  of  1824  was  passed. 

The  war  between  Mexico   and  the  United  States  was  happily 


16   NORTH  BOUNDARY PRESENT  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 


terminated  by  the  treaty  negotiated  at  the  town  of  Guadalupe,  by 
Mr.  Trist,  on  the  2d  of  February,  1848 ;  and,  by  this  compact, 
the  limit  between  our  respective  territories  was  greatly  changed 
from  that  which  had  been  fixed  by  the  treaty  with  Spain  in  1819. 
According  to  the  convention  of  Mr.  Trist,  the  boundary  between 
the  republics  commences  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  three  leagues  from 
land,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  otherwise  called  Rio 
Bravo  del  Norte,  or  opposite  the  mouth  of  its  deepest  branch,  if  it 
should  have  more  than  one  branch  emptying  directly  into  the  sea ; 
from  thence  it  passes  up  the  middle  of  that  river,  following  the 
deepest  channel,  when  it  has  more  than  one,  to  the  point  where  it 
strikes  the  southern  boundary  of  New  Mexico,  thence,  westerly, 
along  the  whole  southern  boundary  of  New  Mexico,  which  runs 
north  of  the  town  of  El  Paso,  to  its  western  termination  ;  —  thence 
northward,  along  the  western  line  of  New  Mexico,  until  it  intersects 
the  first  branch  of  the  river  Gila,  or,  if  it  does  not  intersect  any 
branch  of  that  river,  then  to  the  point  on  the  said  line  nearest  to 
such  branch,  and  then  in  a  direct  line  to  the  same ;  — thence  down 
the  middle  of  the  said  branch  and  of  said  river,  until  it  empties 
into  the  Rio  Colorado  ; — thence  across  the  Rio  Colorado,  follow- 
ing the  division  line  between  Upper  and  Lower  California,  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

It  will  be  perceived  by  inspecting  the  map  that  this  new  boun- 
dary cuts  off  a  large  portion  of  northern  Mexico,  and  gives  us  the 
valuable  territories  of  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California,  together 
with  an  undisputed  right  to  the  enjoyment  of  Texas,  which  had 
previously  been  united  to  the  North  American  confederacy  by  inter- 
national contract,  after  the  independence  of  Texas  had  been 
recognized  by  foreign  nations  and  maintained  by  its  own  people. 

The  states  of  the  Mexican  Republic  and  its  territories  are,  con- 
sequently, under  the  existing  constitution,  the  following  : 


1.  Coahuila. 

2.  Tamaulipas. 

3.  Vera  Cruz. 

4.  Tabasco. 

5.  Yucatan. 

6.  Chiapas. 

7.  Oajaca. 

1.  Lower  California. 


States. 

8.  Puebla. 

9.  Mexico,  with  the 
Federal  District. 

10.  Michoacan. 

11.  Jalisco. 

12.  Sonora. 

13.  Sinaloa. 

14.  Chihuahua. 

Territories. 

2.   Colima. 


15.  Durango. 

16.  New  Leon. 

17.  Zacatecas. 

18.  San  Luis  Potosi. 

19.  Guanajuato. 

20.  Queretaro. 

21.  Guerrero. 

3.  Tlascala. 


rivers  of  mexico.  17 

Rivers  and  Lakes  of  Mexico. 

I.  On  the  Eastern  Coasts. 

1st.  The  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  or  Rio  Bravo,  which  is  the 
largest  of  all  Mexican  streams,  and  rises,  in  about  40^°  north  lati- 
tude, and  100°  west  longitude,  from  Paris,  in  the  lofty  sierras 
which  are  a  continuation  of  the  gigantic  chain  that  forms  the  spine 
of  our  continent.  It  pursues  a  southeasterly  direction  towards  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  traverses  a  distance  of  nearly  eighteen  hun- 
dred miles. 

2d,  The  Rio  del  Tigre,  rises  in  the  state  of  Coahuila,  and 
passes,  in  a  southward  and  easterly  direction,  through  the  states  of 
New  Leon  and  Tamaulipas,  and  finally,  after  traversing  about  three 
hundred  miles,  debouches  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

3d.  The  Rio  de  Borbon,  or  Rio  Blanco.  The  sources  of  this 
stream  are  in  New  Leon,  whence  it  runs  towards  the  east,  and, 
crossing  the  state  of  Tamaulipas,  falls  in  the  Laguna  Madre. 

4th.  The  Rio  de  Santander,  rises  in  the  state  of  Zacatecas, 
crosses  the  state  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  passes  by  Tamaulipas, 
winds  to  the  north,  and  falls,  near  the  bar  of  Santander,  into  the 
Gulf. 

5th.  The  Rio  de  Tampico,  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  rivers 
Panuco  and  Tula.  The  upper  source  of  the  Panuco  is  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  city  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  the  capital  of  the  state 
of  that  name.  Near  half  a  league  north  north-east  of  this  city,  in 
the  valley  de  la  Pila,  rises  a  spring  which  is  protected  by  a  basin 
of  fine  masonry,  and  conveyed  by  an  aqueduct  to  town.  Several 
other  streams,  coming  from  the  south-west,  unite  \yith  this  source 
and  form  the  Panuco.  West  of  the  first  of  these  streams,  swells 
up  the  mountainous  ridge  which  divides  the  waters  of  Mexico 
between  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic.  The  Panuco  courses  east- 
wardly, —  and,  passing  rapidly  through  the  Laguna  Chairel, 
unites  with  the  Tula.  This  latter  stream  mingles  the  waters  of 
the  rivulets  Tepexi,  Tequisquiac,  and  Tlantla,  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  state  of  Mexico  ;  and  receiving,  by  the  canal  of  Huehuetoca, 
the  water  of  the  Rio  Quautitlan,  it  winds  onward  through  the 
valley  of  Tula,  and  near  the  limits  of  the  states  of  Queretaro  and 
Vera  Cruz,  until  it  joins  the  Panuco.  These  united  rivers  receive 
in  the  state  of  Tamaulipas,  the  name  of  the  Rio  de  Tampico, 
which  debouches,  finally,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

6th.  The   Rio   Blanco   rises  in  the  state   of  Vera  Cruz,  near 
Aculzingo,  at  the  foot  of  Citlaltepetl,  or  the  mountain  of  Orizaba, 
c 


18  RIVERS    OF    MEXICO. 

It  courses  onward  through  a  varying  and  rough  channel  among 
the  mountains  and  plains,  until  it  is  lost  in  the  lagunes  near 
Alvarado. 

7th.  The  Rio  de  San  Juan.  The  sources  of  this  river  lie  partly 
in  the  metallic  mountains  of  Ixtlan,  in  the  state  of  Oajaca,  and  partly 
n  the  neighborhood  of  Tehuacan  de  las  Granadas.  Many  large, 
but  wild  streams,  spring  up  in  these  mountain  regions,  and  form 
the  broad  but  shallow  Rio  Grande  de  Quiotepec.  This  river, 
after  winding  through  the  valley  of  Cuicatlan,  receives,  from  the 
south,  the  large  stream  of  Las  Vueltas  ;  and  all  these  unite  to  form 
the  Ric  de  San  Juan,  which  pursues  its  eastern  course  until  it  ap- 
proaches the  coast  near  Alvarado,  when  it  divides  into  two  arms. 
One  of  these,  named  Tecomate,  joining  the  Cosomaloapan  and 
Paso,  form  the  large  lagunes  of  Tequiapa  and  Embarcadero, — 
whilst  the  other  arm,  by  a  different  course,  also  debouches  in  the 
same  lagunes.  , 

8th.  The  Rio  de  Guasacualco,  rises  at  about  16°  58'  of  north 
latitude,  and  96°  19'  west  longitude,  from  Paris,  in  the  mountains 
of  Tarifa,  and  pours  onward  towards  the  east,  receiving  accessions 
from  a  great  number  of  small  mountain  streams  and  rivulets,  until 
it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

9th.  The  Rio  de  Tabasco,  or  Rio  de  Grijalva,  or  Rig 
GuicHULA,  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Cuchumatlanes  towards  the 
'•entre  of  Guatemala,  and  falls  into  the  gulf  at  the  port  of  Tabasco. 

10th.  The  Rio  de  Usumasinta,  rises  also  in  Guatemala,  and 
debouches  in  the  Laguna  de  Terminos. 

II.  Small  Eastern  Coast  Streams. 

Rio  Garces.  Rio  Antigua. 

Rio  de  Tuspan.  Rio  de  JAMAPA,or  Medei.lin 

Rio  de  Cazones.  Rio  Aquivilco. 

Rio  de  Tenistepec.  Rio  de  Tonala. 

RiODE  jAJALPAM,0rTEC0LUTLA.RlO    DE    SaNTA   AnNA. 

Rio  DE  I^AUTLA.  Rio  de  Capilco. 

Rio  de  Tlapacoyan.  Rio  de  dos  Bocas. 

Rio  de  Palmar.  Rio  de  Chiltepec. 

Rio  de  Mizantla.  Rio  de  Saboja. 

Rio  de  Maguilmanapa.  Rio  de  Champoton. 

Rio  de  Yeguascalco.  Rio  de  Chen. 

Rio  de  Actopan.  Rio  de  Escatallo. 

Rio  de  Chuchalaca.  Rio  de  San  Francisco. 

Rio  de  San  Angel.  Rio  de  Silan. 

Rio  de  San  Carlos.  Rio  Cedeos 


rivers  of  mexico.  19 

Rio  Conil.  Rio  de  la  Ascension. 

Rio  Bolino.  Rio  San  Josfi. 

Rio  Nuevo.  Rio  Hondo. 

Rio  Bacalar. 

Many  of  these  streams  are,  in  fact,  not  entitled  to  the  name  ol 
rivers,  though  a  few  of  them  are  important,  whilst  all  are  valuable 
to  some  extent  for  agriculture,  transportation,  irrigation,  or  occa- 
sional water  power. 

Til.  Rivers  on  the  West  and  South  Coast  of  Mexico. 

1st.  Rio  de  Chimalapa,  sometimes  called  also,  Rio  de  Chi- 
capa,  rises  in  the  forests  and  mountains  of  Tarifa  in  about  16°  43^ 
north,  96°  33'  west  from  Paris,  and  debouches  in  the  Pacific,  after 
passing  the  village  of  Tehuantepec.  The  rivers  Obstula,  Nilte- 
PEc  or  Estepec, —  de  los  Perros  or  Juchuitan,  Arenas,  La- 
gartero,  Otates,  are  small  coast  streams  falling  into  the  lagunes 
that  border  the  ocean. 

2d.  The  Rio  de  Tehuantepec  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
streams,  one  of  which  rises  about  fifty  leagues  west  north-west  of 
Tehuantepec,  near  the  village  of  San  Dionisio,  whilst  the  other 
springs  from  the  mountains  of  Lyapi  and  Quiegolani,  in  the  lands  of 
the  Chontales.  The  two  unite  seven  leagues  north-west  of  Tehu- 
antepec ;  and,  passing  by  the  village  of  that  name,  this  river  finally 
pours  into  the  Pacific,  near  the  small  port  of  Las  Ventosas. 

3d.  The  Rio  Verde  rises  in  the  Upper  Misteca,  eight  leagues 
north  of  Oajaca,  and  falls  west  of  the  Cerro  de  la  Plata  and  of  the 
Lagunas  of  Chacahua,  into  the  Pacific.  On  the  coast  of  Oajaca 
there  are  many  smaller  streams  and  rivulets,  such  as  the  Chaca- 
LAPA,  the  Manialtepec,  the  Colotepect,  the  Santa  Helena, 
the  Caputita,  the  Comun,  the  Ayutla,  the  Chicometepec  and 
the  Tecoyama,  —  the  last  of  which  is  the  boundary  between  the 
states  of  Oajaca  and  Puebla. 

4th.  The  Rio  de  Tlascala,  or  Rio  de  Papagallo,  has  its 
source  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Tlascala,  in  the  mountain  At- 
lancatepetl ;  passes  through  the  state  of  Puebla,  receives  the  Rio 
Mezcala,  out  of  the  state  of  Mexico,  and  enters  the  Pacific  south 
of  the  village  of  Ayulta. 

5th.  The  Rio  de  Zacatula,  or  Rio  Balsas,  originates  in  the 
valley  of  Istla,  in  the  state  of  Mexico,  and  after  winding  west  south- 
westerly, it  receives  the  Rios  Zitacuaro,  de  Churumuco,  and  del 
Marquez  out  of  the  state  of  Michoacan,  and  passes  into  the 
Pacific. 

6th.  Rio  de  Aztala  rises  two  leagues  south-west  of  the  village 


20  RIVERS    OF    MEXICO. 

of  Coalcoman,  receives  the  Agamilco,  Maruato  and  Chichucua, 
and  flows  into  the  sea  between  Cachan  and  Choc6la. 

7th.  Rio  de  Tolotlan,  or  Rio  Grande  de  Santiago.  This 
is  one  of  the  longest  and  most  important  of  Mexican  rivers,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Laxa  and  Lerma,  near  Salamanca,  in 
the  state  of  Guanajuato,  and  falls  into  the  Pacific  near  San  Bias 
after  a  course  of  about  two  hundred  leagues.  The  Rio  Bay6na  or 
Canas  is  an  important  stream  on  the  coast  near  the  boundary  be- 
tween Jalisco  and  Sinaloa. 

8th.  The  Rio  de  Culiacan  rises  in  the  north  of  the  state  of 
Durango,  where  it  is  called  Rio  Sanzeda,  thence  it  takes  its 
course  towards  the  north-west,  receiving  some  smaller  streams,  and 
then  passing  by  the  town  of  Culiacan,  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia. The  Rio  DE  RosARio,  Rio  de  Mazatlan,  debouche  in 
the  same  gulf  The  rivers  Piastla,  Elota,  Tavala,  Emaya, 
MocoRiTO,  Sinaloa  or  Ocroni,  Ahome,  are  small  streams  on 
the  coast  of  Sinaloa. 

9th.  The  Rio  del  Fuerte  has  its  source  in  the  metalliferous 
mountains  of  Batopilas  and  Uruachi,  in  the  state  of  Chihuahua, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  river  Batopilas.  It  takes  a  westerly 
course  across  the  state  of  Sinaloa  about  27°  north  ;  — it  receives  a 
number  of  other  streams,  on  the  western  slope  of  a  range  of  the 
Cordilleras,  apd  finally  flows  into  the  California  Gulf 

10th.  The  Rio  Mayo  is  the  boundary  stream  between  the  states 
of  Sinaloa  and  Sonora ;  at  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  California  is 
the  small  port  of  Santa  Cruz  de  Mayo,  or  Guitivis. 

11th.  The  Rio  Hiaqui,  or  Yaqui,  rises  on  the  west  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Madre,  near  the  village  Matatiche  in  the  state  of  Chihuahua, 
whence  its  course  is  west  south-west,  across  the  state  of  Sonora; 
it  receives  the  Rio  Grande  de  Bavispe  which  rises  in  the  state 
of  Chihuahua,  and  also  the  Rios  Oposura  and  Chico,  and,  finally, 
is  lost  in   the  Gulf  of  California,  at  about  27°  37'  north  latitude. 

12th.  Rio  DE  GuAYAMAS.  This  river  rises  at  San  Jos6  de  Pi- 
mas,  in  latitude  28°  26'  north,  its  course  is  west  south-west, 
and  its  mouth  in  the  Californian  Gulf,  at  the  fine  and  favorite  harbor 
of  San-Jose  de  Guayamas  in  latitude  27°  40'. 

13th.  The  Rio  de  la  Ascension  rises  at  about  31°  40'  north 
and  112°  37'  west  longitude.  On  its  south-westerly  course  it  re- 
ceives the  tributary  waters  of  the  Rio  de  San  Ignacio  and  falls  at 
about  30°  20'  north  into  the  Gulf  of  California. 

14th.  Rio  de  Colorado.  This  important  stream  is  formed  of 
the  river  Rafael  in  about  40°  15'  north,  and  110°  50'  west  longi- 
tude from  Paris,  on  the  western  declivity  of  the  Sierra  de  las  Grul- 


RIVERS    AND    LAKES    OF    MEXICO.  21 

las,  whence  it  takes  a  south-west  course  and  receives,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Monte  de  Sal  Gemme,  the  Rio  de  Nuestra  Senora  de 
Dolores,  which  springs  about  1°  30'  west  of  the  Rafael,  in  the 
Cerro  de  la  Plata ;  and,  thus,  receiving  the  accretions  of  a  number 
of  other  streams,  it  courses  onward  until  it  is  lost  at  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  California.  The  whole  length  of  the  Colorado  is  esti- 
mated at  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  leagues.  For  about  fifty 
leagues  it  is  navigable  by  small  sea  going  vessels ;  and,  for  about  a 
hundred  leagues  higher,  it  may  be  traversed  by  large  boats.  The  sea 
is  said  to  ebb  and  flow  between  thirty-five  and  forty  leagues  beyond 
the  mouth  of  this  river.  The  sources  of  the  Arkansas  and  of  the 
Rio  Grande  del  Norte  lie  very  near  those  of  the  Colorado  ;  so 
that  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  of  the  Gulf  of  California 
are  nearly  united  by  these  streams  across  our  continent. 

15th.  The  Rio  Gila  rises  in  the  Sierra  de  los  Mimbres,  and  de- 
scends to  the  south,  through  a  small  and  mountain  bound  valley 
until  it  unites  with  the  Colorado. 

IV.  Lakes,  Lagunes,  &c. 

1.  TiMPANOGOs  and  Teyugo  or  Salado. 

2.  Lagunas  de  Bavispe,  San  Martin,  de  Guzman,  de  Patos, 
de  Encinillas  and  de  Castilla  in  the  state  of  Chihuahua. 

3.  The  Laguna  de  Cayman  in  the  Bolson  de  JV|apimi. 

4.  The  Lakes  of  Parras  and  Agua  Verde  on  the  west  boun- 
dary of  Coahuila. 

5.  The  Lakes  of  Charcas,  Chairel  and  Chila  in  the  state 
of  San  Luis  Potosi. 

6.  Nine  small  Soda  Lakes  in  Zacatecas. 

7.  The  large  and  important  Lake  of'  Chapala  and  others  in 
Jalisco. 

8.  Pazcuaro,  Cuizco,  Araron,  Huango,  Tanguato,  and  Hu- 
ANiQuo  in  Michoacan. 

9.  The  five  large  Lakes  of  Tezcoco,  Chalco,  Xochimilco, 
San  Cristoval  and  Zumpango  in  the  valley  of  Mexico. 

10.  The  Lakes  of  Atenco,  Coatetilco,  and  Tenancingo  in 
the  valley  of  Toluca. 

11.  A  number  of  small  ones  in  Oajaca. 

12.  The  Lakes  of  Tampico,  Catemaco,  Alijoyuca,  Te- 
NANGO,  Chiapa  on  the  gulf  coast  or  near  it. 

13.  The  Lake  of  Yurirapundaro  in  Guanajuato. 


CHAPTER  II. 
MEXICAN  CLASSES 


DIVISION  OF  POPULATION WHITES INDIANS AFRICANS LE- 

PEROS RANCHEROS CHARACTERISTICS INDIFFERENCE 

PROCRASTINATION. FEMALES BETTER  CLASSES THEIR  SO- 
CIAL HABITS ENTERTAINMENTS. LEPEROS THEIR  HABITS 

EVANGELISTAS THIEVING. THE  RANCHERO HIS  CHAR- 
ACTER AND  HABITS. THE  INDIAN  RACE AGRICULTURISTS 

TRADITIONARY  HABITS  ADHERED  TO IMPROVIDENCE SUPER- 
STITION  DRUNKENNESS INDIAN  WOMEN SERVILE  CON- 
DITION   LOCAL      ADHESIVENESS PEONAGE  WHIPPING.  

PLANTER-LIFE ITS      SOLITUDE      AND      RESULTS.  MUHLENP- 

FORDt's    character    OF    THE    INDIANS. INDIAN    TRIBES    AND 

RACES  IN  MEXICO. TABLE  OF  CASTES  IN  MEXICO. 

An  adequate  and  proper  classification  of  the  Mexican  population, 
tor  descriptive  purposes,  may  be  made  under  the  general  heads  of: 
JiVhites,  Indians,  Africans,  and  the  mixed  breeds,  who  are  socially 
sub-divided  into  —  l«t,  the  educated  and  respectable  Mexicans 
dwelling  in  towns,  villages  or  on  estates ;  23,  the  LeperOs ;  and 
3d,  the  Rancheros. 

The  whites  are  still  classed  in  Mexico  as  Creoles,  or,  natives  of 
the  country ;  and  gachupines  and  chapetones,  who  are  Spaniards 
born  in  the  Peninsula.  The  Spanish  population  yet  remaining  in  the 
country,  its  immediate  descendants,  and  the  emigrants  from  Spain, 
form  a  numerous  and  important  body.  Her  Catholic  Majesty's 
Consul  General  in  Mexico  derives  a  lucrative  revenue  from  supply- 
ing this  large  class  of  his  countrymen  with  annual  "protections," 
or  '^cartas  de  seguridad,^^  granted  by  the  Mexican  government, 
but  procured  from  it  through  the  instrumentality  of  this  functionary. 

The  Spaniard  no  longer  holds  his  former  rank  in  the  social  scale 
of  the  ancient  colony.  There  are  many  wealthy  mercantile  families 
in  the  republic,  who  owe  allegiance  to  the  crown  ;  but  among  the 
mechanical  classes  there  are  numbers  of  poor  Castilians  whose  fate 
•would  be  melancholy  in  Mexico,  were  they  not  succored  and  pro- 
tected by  their  wealthier  countrymen. 

The  Mexican  native,  in  whose  veins  there  is  almost  always  a 
few  drops  of  indigenous  blood,  is  commonly  indolent  and  often 
vicious.  The  bland  climate  and  his  natural  temperament  predis- 
pose him  for  an  indulgent,  easy  and  voluptuous  life ;  yet  the  many 


|(;;V,; 

.Mm 

■>'j\i 

23  CHARACTERISTICS INDIFFERENCE. 

faults  of  his  character  may  be  fairly  attributed  to  the  want  of  edu 
cation,  early  self-restraint  and  the  disordered  political  state  of  his' 
country  which  has  produced  a  bad  effect  upon  social  life.  With 
quick  and  often  solid  talents,  the  Mexican  citizen  is  not  devoted,; 
early  in  his  career,  by  thoughtful  parents,  either  to  intellectual  pur- 
suits or  to  that  mental  discipline  which  would  regulate  an  impulsive 
temperament  or  fit  him  for  the  domestic,  scientific,  or  political  po- 
sition he  might  attain  in  other  countries,  under  a  different  social 
regime.  He  recollects  that  in  the  best  days  of  the  colony  his 
family  had  been  distinguished,  powerful  and  rich,  and  he  finds  it 
difficult,  in  his  present  impoverished  state,  to  forget  this  traditionary' 
position.  Accordingly,  he  acts  upon  the  memorial  basis  of  the 
past,  as  if  it  were  still  within  his  grasp  or  control.  This  renders 
him  thriftlessly  improvident.  Mexicans  still  speak  of  the  epoch 
when  they  or  their  parents  "  swam  in  gold,  "  or  dispensed  ducats 
to  the  dependants  on  whom  they  now  reluctantly  bestow  coppers. 
Besides  this,  their  indolent  indifference,  which  almost  amounts  to 
Arab  fatalism,  makes  them  not  only  subservient  to  the  past,  but 
idolaters  of  a  hope  which  is  quite  as  fallacious.  According  to  their 
belief,  better  times  are  continually  approaching.  Something,  they 
imagine,  will  shortly  occur  to  improve  their  broken  or  periled  for- 
tunes. "  Paciencia  y  barajar,  "  —  "  patience  and  shuffle  the 
cards,  "  is  a  maxim  on  the  lips  of  every  one  who  is  overthrown  by 
a  revolution,  loses  his  friends,  incurs  censure,  or  finds  himself 
starving  for  want  of  a  dollar.  If  you  enquire  as  to  their  prospects, 
their  friends,  their  interests,  or,  indeed,  in  regard  to  almost  anj 
subject  that  requires  some  reflection  for  a  reasonable  reply,  —  they 
answer  with  the  habitual  —  "  Quien  Sabe  !  "  —  "  who  can  tell !  " 
which  in  the  vocabulary  of  a  common  Mexican  is  the  —  ^^  quod 
erat  demonstrandum  "  of  any  social  or  political  problem. 

Such  qualities  and  habits  do  not  prepare  a  nation  for  resolute  ac-~-^ 
tion  upon  progressive  principles.  We  consequently  find,  throughout "t 
Mexico,  an  universal  predisposition  to  dependence  upon  others,  or  to 
a  blind  reliance  upon  chance.  The  drum  and  the  bell  which  ring 
forever  in  our  ears  in  Mexico,  apprise  us  that  immense  numbers 
who  possess  sufficient  influence  to  introduce  them  into  the  army  or 
the  church,  repose  comfortably  under  the  protection  of  those  two 
eleemosynary  institutions.  Such  is,  moreover,  the  case  in  all  the 
administrative  departments  of  the  government.  Indeed,  the  state 
seems  only  to  be  constitutionally  organized  in  order  to  supply  the 
wants  of  those  it  employs,  or  to  found  a  genteel  hospital  in  which 
intriguing  idlers  are  supported  either  at  the  expense  of  industrious 


PROCRASTINATION FEMALES.  24 

men  or  by  contracting  national  loans  which  may  finally  overwhelm 
the  republic. 

/-The  church,  the  army,  and  the  government,  are  thus  three  per- 
manent resources  for  young  persons  who  are  too  indolent  to  engage 
in  mercantile  pursuits,  or  too  proud  to  stoop  from  their  hereditary 
family  rank  either  into  trade  or  the  workshop. 

Bad  as  are  these  social  features,  there  is  another  which  may  be 
reckoned  still  worse.  There  are  thousands  in  the  republic  whose 
daily  reliance  is  exclusively  on  fortune,  and  for  whom  the  turn  of  a 
card  decides  whether  they  are  to  return  to  their  comfortless  families 
with  a  plentiful  dinner,  or  without  a  cent  upon  which  they  may, 
to-morrow,  recommence  their  contest  with  luck  at  the  gambling 
table.  This  is  a  dreadful  vice  when  it  becomes  habitual  among  a 
i  naturally  susceptible,  thriftless  and  procrastinating  people  like  the 
'  Mexicans.  Prodigal  not  only  of  their  gold  but  of  their  time,  they 
squander  the  latter  without  ever  reflecting  that  it  is  the  capital  of 
industrious  men.  They  regard  business  as  a  burden,  and  put  off, 
whenever  they  are  permitted,  a  debt,  an  engagement,  or  a  duty, 
"  hasta  Tnanana  "  —  until  to-morrow ! 

We  are  perhaps  wrong  in  alleging  that  every  duty  is  procrasti- 
nated, and  life  given  up  exclusively  to  pleasure ;  for  the  genuine 
Mexican  is  strict  and  punctual  in  the  performance  of,  at  least,  the 
externals  of  religion.  The  pious  observances  of  the  church,  are, 
however,  even  more  generally  rigorous  among  the  women  than 
the  men. 

^^  The  Mexican  females  in  the  upper  ranks  are  badly,  if  at  all,  edu- 
^  cated.  Few  foreign  modern  improvements  have  been  engrafted  on 
tlie  old  Spanish  system  of  teaching,  whilst  the  subjects  taught,  and 
the  text-books  used,  are  quite  as  primitive.  At  home,  the  Mexi- 
can lady  is  obsequiously  served  by  devoted  domestics,  but  is  brought 
up  without  a  personal  knowledge  of  a  housewife's  thrifty  duties. 
The  evil  influence  of  such  vacant  minds  upon  the  male  sex  must, 
necessarily,  be  very  great.  If  the  intellect  does  not  suggest  topics 
for  conversation,  it  is  natural  that  the  instincts  will  supply  the  de- 
ficiency.    Thus  it  is  that  the  life  of  large  numbers  of  Mexican  men 

^  is  summed  up  in  devotion  to  their  horses,  their  gueridas,  and 
their  favorite  gambling  tables  ;  whilst  the  existence  of  Mexican 
women  is  as  easily  divided  between  mass,  meals,  dress,  driving, 
and  the  theatre. 

Yet  we  will  not  be  tempted  by  an   epigrammatic   sentence,  into 
condemnation  of  the  whole  of  Mexican  society.     It  would  be  un- 


BETTER    CLASSES THEIR    SOCIAL    HABITS.  25 

just  to  convey  an  unqualified  idea  that  such  are  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  entire  white  race  whose  birth  or  rank  entitle  it  to  an  ex- 
alted social  position.  Nevertheless,  it  is  a  true  picture  of  perhaps 
*iie  most  numerous  class.  The  Mexican  revolution  —  its  strug- 
gles, endurance  and  success, —  disclose  many  manly  features  of 
national  character,  and  prepare  us  to  appreciate  that  patriotic  and 
cultivated  body  of  men  and  women  who  form  the  national  heart 
and  hope  of  the  republic. 

The  Mexicans  have  been  so  harshly  dealt  with  in  the  descrip- 
tions of  foreigners,  that  they  are  not  always  disposed  to  wel- 
come them  beyond  their  thresholds.  This  arises  neither  from  fear 
nor  jealousy,  but  from  the  natural  distrust  of  persons  whom  they 
imagine  visit  their  country  with  but  little  sympathy  for  its  institu- 
tions and  less  consideration  for  their  personal  habits.  Nor  is  this 
repulsiveness  to  strangers  exhibited  so  much  in  the  fashionable  cir- 
cles of  society  as  it  is  among  that  loftier  description  of  persons  we 
have  already  referred  to.  Yet  there  are  occasions  upon  which  the 
houses  and  hearts  of  this  very  class  are  cordially  opened  to  intelli- 
gent and  discreet  foreigners,  and  it  is  then  that  an  opportunity  is 
afforded  of  seeing  the  best  phases  of  Mexican  character.  The  fine 
benevolence  of  ancient  friendship,  the  universal  respect  for  genius, 
a  competent  knowledge  of  the  laws  and  institutions  of  other  coun- 
tries, a  perfect  acquaintance  with  the  causes  of  Mexican  decadence, 
and  a  charming  regard  and  care  for  all  those  domestic  rites  which 
cement  the  affections  of  a  home  circle,  may  all  be  observed  and  ad- 
mired within  the  walls  of  a  Mexican  dwelling. 

When  a  stranger  is  thus  received  in  the  confidential  intimacy  of 
a  household,  there  is  no  longer  any  restraint  put  upon  the  inmates 
in  his  presence.  The  courteous  expressions  which  are  ordinarily 
used  in  the  commerce  of  society,  and  whose  formal  but  excessive 
politeness  have  induced  careless  men  to  imagine  the  Mexicans  in- 
sincere, are  now  only  expressive  of  the  most  cordial  devotion  to 
your  interests  and  wants.  "  Mi  casa  esta  a  su  disposition,"  "my 
house  is  at  your  disposal,"  means  exactly  what  it  says.  You  are 
at  home. 

As  the  Mexicans  are  not  a  people  addicted  to  the  same  mode  or 
extent  of  informal  social  intercourse  among  themselves  as  the  Ger- 
mans, the  English,  or  the  Americans,  it  is  not  strange  that  they 
should  guard  their  doors  so  carefully  against  foreigners  who  visit 
Lheir  country  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  fortunes  rapidly,  in  order 
to  enjoy  them  in  the  society  of  their  native  land.  The  reception 
of  a  stranger  upon  an   intimate  footing  is  therefore  the  greatest 

D 


26  ENTERTAINMENTS  LEPEROS. 

compliment  he  can  receive  from  the  meritorious  classes.  It  is  not 
alone  with  public  affairs  or  purely  intellectual  discussions  that  we 
are  entertained  in  such  re-unions  of  cultivated  society.  In  the  free 
conversation  of  the  intimate  circle  there  is  always  a  cordial  display 
of  sincere  interest  for  the  welfare  of  each  other.  The  aspirations 
of  the  rich  or  the  hopes  of  the  poor,  are  always  tenderly  discussed. 
There  is  abundant  evidence  of  heart ;  and,  even  after  years  have 
elapsed,  and  the  sojourner  in  Mexico  has  returned  to  his  home,  he 
will  find  by  his  correspondence  that  he  is  still  remembered  by  the 
intelligent  friends,  who  made  him  forget  that  he  was  "  a  stranger 
in  a  strange  land." 

The  Mexicans  have  generally  supposed  that  it  was  impossible  to 
entertain  their  friends  without  an  extravagant  expenditure  which 
was  perhaps  the  standard  that  measured  the  value  of  their  guests. 
They  have  still  to  learn  that  a  simple  style  and  a  cordial  welcome 
together  with  the  refined  conversational  intercourse  are  more  val- 
ued than  imported  champagne  and  '■'■pate  defoie  gras.^^  As  soon 
as  their  society  becomes  less  old  fashioned  and  formal,  they  will 
find  themselves  more  comfortable  in  the  presence  of  strangers.  In 
Mexico,  as  in  all  countries,  there  are  notorious  specimens  of  ego- 
tism, haughtiness,  ill-breeding,  and  loose  morals,  both  among  men 
and  women ;  and  although  we  find  these  worthless  elements  float- 
ing like  bubbles  on  the  surface  of  society,  they  must  not  be  re- 
garded as  exclusive  national  characteristics.  "  A  nation,  in  which 
revolutions  and  counter-revolutions  are  events  of  almost  daily  oc- 
currence, is  naturally  prolific  in  desperate  and  crafty  political 
adventurers ;"  but  the  evils  that  have  been  begotten  by  the  past, 
must  not  be  considered  as  permanent. 

The  Lepero  is  a  variety  of  the  Indian,  and  combines  in  himself 
most  of  the  bad  qualities  of  the  two  classes  from  whose  union  he 
derives  his  being.  He  is  the  inhabitant  of  cities,  towns  or  vil- 
lages, and,  is  in  Mexico,  what  the  lazzaroni  are  in  Na])les, 
Neither  white,  black  nor  copper  colored ;  neither  savage  nor  civi- 
lized ;  neither  an  agriculturist  nor  a  mechanic,  the  lepero  occupies 
an  equivocal  position  upon  the  boundaries  of  all  these  charac- 
ters. His  existence  is  altogether  a  matter  of  chance.  He  has 
scarcely  ever  a  permanent  home.  His  wife  and  children,  or 
his  amiga,  arc  lodged  on  the  ground  floor  of  a  hovel  in  the  out- 
skirts of  the  town,  from  which  he  is  often  expelled  in  consequence 
either  of  his  poverty,  intemperance,  or  quarrelsome  behavior. 
If  unmarried,  he  finds  a  resting  place,  in  these  delicious  climates, 
on  a  mat  beneath  the  sky,  or  within  the  friendly  shelter  of  a  wall 


THEIR  HABITS EVANGELISTAS THIEVING.  27 

or  portico.  He  is  devoted  to  pulque  and  music ;  for,  whilst  he 
drains  his  social  glass  in  the  pulqueria  amid  a  crowd  of  com- 
panion leperos,  he  is  ever  ready  to  sing  a  stave  or  make  a  verse  in 
which  a  spice  of  wit  or  satire  is  certainly  found.  When  he  has 
earned  a  dollar  by  toil,  he  quits  his  labor  even  before  it  is  com- 
pleted, in  order  to  spend  his  enormous  gain.  His  wants  are  so 
small  that  he  may  be  liberal  in  his  vices.  He  regards  work  as  an 
odious  imposition  upon  human  nature ;  and,  created  merely  to  live, 
he  takes  care  only  of  to-day  leaving  to-morrow  to  take  care  of 
itself.  Prudence,  he  thinks,  would  be  a  manifest  distrust  of  Provi- 
dence. His  food,  purchased  at  the  corner  of  a  street  from  one  of 
the  peripatetic  cooks,  consists  of  a  few  tortillas  or  corncakes, 
steeped  in  a  pan  of  Chili  peppers  compounded  with  lard.  A  frag- 
ment of  beef  or  fowl  sometimes  gives  zest  to  the  frugal  mess.  His 
dress,  of  narrow  cotton  or  leather  trowsers,and  a  blanket  which  is 
at  once,  bed,  bedding,  coat  and  cloak,  —  is  worn  season  after  season 
without  washing,  except  during  the  providential  ablutions  of  rain, 
until  the  mingled  attrition  of  dirt  and  time  entirely  destroy  the 
materials.  An  occasional  crime,  or  quarrel,  which  is  terminated  by 
a  resort  to  knives  and  copious  phlebotomy,  sends  him  several  times 
every  year  to  the  public  prison,  where  he  is  faithfully  visited,  fed 
and  consoled  by  his  spouse  or  amiga.  As  he  passes  along  the 
streets  with  the  manacled  chain-gang  to  sweep  the  town,  he  begs  a 
claco  with  such  bewitching  impudence  that  the  man  who  refuses 
the  demanded  alms  must  be  insensible  to  humor.  Like  the  Indian, 
he  is  remarkably  skilful  in  imitation,  and  makes  figures  of  wax  or 
rags,  which  are  not  only  singularly  faithful  as  portraits,  but  possess 
a  certain  degree  of  grace  that  is  worthy  of  an  artist.  Some  of  the 
tribe  read  and  write  with  ease  and  even  elegance.  Among  this  class 
are  to  be  found  the  evangelistas  or  letter  writers,  who,  seated  around 
the  portales  and  side  walks  of  the  plaza,  are  ready,  at  a  moment's 
notice,  to  indite  a  sonnet  to  a  mistress,  a  petition  to  government, 
a  letter  to  an  absent  husband,  or  a  wrathful  effusion  to  a  faithless 
lover.  Another  branch  of  this  nomadic  horde  is  engaged  in  the 
profitable  occupation  of  "  thieving,"  which  requires  no  capital  in 
trade  save  nimble  fingers,  rapid  action,  and  a  bold  look  with  which 
detection  may  be  defied.  The  narrow  streets  and  lanes  of  towns 
are  the  theatres  in  which  these  accomplished  rogues  perform.  No 
man  in  Mexico  dares  indulge  in  the  luxury  of  carrying  a  handher- 
chief  in  his  pocket.  The  attempt  would  be  useless,  for  a  lepero 
would  appropriate  it  before  the  stranger  had  walked  a  square. 
Upon  one  occasion  a  hat  was  actually  taken  off  an  Englishman  s 


28  THE  RANCHERO HIS   CHARACTER    AND  HABITS. 

head  by  a  lepero  in  a  dense  crowd;  but  the  act  was  so  adroitly 
done,  that  the  jolly  foreigner  joined  in  the  shout  of  laughter  with 
which  the  hero  was  hailed  as  he  vanished  among  the  masses. 
Should  the  priest  pass  at  such  a  moment  with  the  host,  on  his  way 
to  the  chamber  of  a  dying  citizen,  the  lepero  would  fall  on  his 
knees  with  the  rest  of  the  townspeople,  yet  whilst  he  beat  his 
breast  M^ith  one  hand,  he  might  be  seen  to  keep  the  other  tena- 
ciously in  his  victim's  pocket.  If  caught  in  the  felonious  act,  which 
rarely  happens,  the  lepero  takes  the  inflicted  blows  or  choking  with 
craven  humility,  and,  whilst  he  shouts  —  "  ya  esta,  Senor  amo,  — 
ya  estaV^  "enough,  my  master,  oh  enough!"  he  is  seeking  for 
another  opportunity  to  pilfer  his  punisher's  watch  or  purse,  during 
the  conflict. 

Such  is  the  Mexican  lepero.  The  sketch  may  seem  broad  or 
even  caricatured  to  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  country, 
but  its  accuracy  will  be  acknowledged  by  all  who  have  resided  in 
Mexico  and  been  haunted  by  the  filthy  tribe. 

The  Ranchero  comes  next  in  our  classification  of  the  Mexi- 
cans. He  is  a  small  farmer,  or  vaquero,  who  owns  or  hires  a  few 
acres  on  which  he  cultivates  his  corn  or  grazes  his  cattle.  He  is 
not  an  Indian,  a  white  man,  an  African,  or  a  lepero,  yet  he  mixes 
the  qualities  of  all  in  his  motly  character.  He  is  a  person  of  lofty 
thoughts  and  aspirations; — a  devoted  patriot;  —  a  staunch  fighter 
in  all  the  revolutions  whenever  guerillas  are  required ;  —  a  hard 
rider  and  capital  boon  companion  over  a  bottle  or  in  a  journey 
among  the  mountains. 

On  his  small  estate  he  devotes  himself  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
ground,  or  leaves  this  menial  occupation  to  his  family  whilst  he 
goes  off"  to  the  wars  or  to  carousals  and  fandangos  in  the  neighbor- 
ing village  pulquerias.  He  is  an  Arab  in  his  habits,  and  especially 
in  his  love  and  management  of  the  horse.  Dressed  in  his  leather 
trowsers  and  jerkin;  with  his  serape  over  his  shoulders,  his  broad 
briraed  and  silver  corded  sombrero  on  his  head;  his  heels  armed  with 
spurs  whose  three-inch  rowels  gleam  like  the  blades  of  daggers ;  his 
sword  strapped  to  the  saddle  beneath  his  armas  de  agua,  and,  grasp- 
ing his  gun  in  his  hand,  —  the  Ranchero  is  ready,  as  soon  as  he 
mounts,  to  follow  you  for  months  over  the  republic.  He  is  the 
nomade  of  the  country,  as  the  lepci-o  is  of  the  town.  His  devotion 
to  his  animal  is  unbounded.  The  faithful  quadruped  is  his  best 
friend  and  surest  reliance.  His  lazo  lies  curved  gracefully  in  fes- 
toons  around  the  pommel  of  his  saddle.     Thus,  with  his  trusty 


THE    INDIAN    RACE.  29 

weapons  and  his  horse,  the  mounted  ranchero  is  at  home  in  the  for- 
est or  in  the  open  field ;  on  hill  side  or  in  valley.  Few  riders,  else- 
where, can  equal  him  in  speed  or  horsemanship  ;  and  few  can  excel 
him  as  a  herdsman,  a  robber,  an  enemy,  or  even  h.  friend  whenever 
you  hit  his  fancy  or  are  willing  to  understand  his  character  and 
pardon  his  sins. 

Indian  Race  of  Mexico. 

Notwithstanding  the  brilliant  pages  which  Aztec  history  contri- 
buted to  the  annals  of  America  and  the  civilization  which  prevailed, 
not  only  in  the  valley  of  Mexico,  but  also  in  other  portions  of  the 
territory  now  within  the  limits  of  the  republic,  we  find  that  the  in- 
digenous descendants  of  these  heroic  and  intelligent  ancestors  have  I 
degenerated  to  such  a  degree  that  they  are  at  present  in  general, 
fitted  only  for  the  servile  toils  to  which  they  are  commonly  and 
habitually  devoted.  Three  hundred  years  of  oppression  may  have 
done  much  to  produce  this  sad  result.  Without  union  among  the") 
tribes  ;  without  community  of  feeling,  language  or  nationality  ;  thel 
Indians  became  an  easy  prey  to  the  Spaniards  after  the  conquest 
of  the  great  central  power.  Old  prophecies  were  accomplished, 
according  to  the  Aztec  belief,  by  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  "It 
is  long  since  we  knew  from  our  ancestors,"  —  said  Montezuma  to 
Cortez,  —  "that  neither  I  nor  all  who  inhabit  these  lands  were  ori- 
ginally of  them,  but  that  we  are  strangers,  and  came  hither  from 
distant  places.  It  was  said  that  a  great  lord  conveyed  our  race  to 
these  regions  and  returned  to  the  land  of  his  birth,  and  yet,  came 
back  once  more  to  us.  But,  in  the  meantime,  those  whom  he  first 
brought  had  intermarried  with  the  women  of  the  country ;  and 
when  he  desired  them  to  return  again  to  the  land  of  their  fathers 
they  refused  to  go.  He  went  alone ;  and  ever  since  have  we 
believed,  that  from  among  those  who  were  the  descendants  of  that 
mighty  lord,  one  shall  come  to  subdue  this  land,  and  make  us  his 
vassals!  According  to  what  you  declare  of  the  place  whence 
you  come,  which  is  toward  the  rising  sun,  and  of  the  great  lord 
who  is  your  King,  we  must  surely  believe  that  he  is  our  natural 
lord." 

Such  were  the  superstitious  opinions  amongst  the  most  civilized 
of  all  the  Indian  nations  at  the  period  of  the  conquest.  It  is  not 
surprising  therefore  to  find  the  other  nomadic,  predatory  hordes,  — 
whose  ferocity  was  not  so  keen  as  that  of  their  northern  kindred, 
but  had  been  tempered  and  softened  in  some  degree  by  the  genial 
climate  of  the  tropics,  —  soon  yielding  to  the  superior  will  of  a 


30      AGRICULTURISTS TRADITIONARY  HABITS    ADHERED  TO. 

masculine  race,  eager,  not  only  for  gold,  but  for  the  establishment 
of  estates  which  were  in  fact  principalities,  and  whose  beneficiaJ 
improvement  required  the  employment  of  large  bodies  of  continual 
and  compulsory  laborers.  The  Indians  afforded  the  staple  of  this 
stock  at  once.  The  conquest  rooted  out  all  their  old  institutions  by 
violence.  Their  government  and  laws  were  overthrown  by  force; 
their  religion  was  changed  by  power ;  their  graven  idols,  the  ma- 
terial emblems  of  their  gods,  were  ground  to  dust ;  their  social  sys 
tem  was  completely  overturned ;  and  thus,  perfectly  annihiliated  a^ 
a  nation,  in  politics,  theology,  and  domestic  life  or  habits,  thej 
were,  in  the  end,  but  wretched  outcasts  in  their  own  land. 

The  Indians  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  somewhat  prepared  by 
degradation  for  the  system  of  repartimientos,  which,  as  we  have 
already  seen  in  the  historical  part  of  this  work,  was  instituted  im- 
mediately after  the  conquest. 

The  aborigines  throughout  Mexico  have  been  devoted  as  a  class 
to  agricultural  labors.  Immediately  after  the  conquest  the  Spaniards 
forced  them  to  toil  in  the  mines  as  well  as  in  the  fields ;  but  as  soon 
as  a  race  of  mixed  blood  was  found  to  replace  these  original  la- 
borers in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  the  native  Indian  escaped  to 
wilder  districts  where  there  were  no  mines,  or  where  his  services 
were  required  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Besides  this,  since  the 
revolution,  labor  has  been  somewhat  more  free  than  before  that 
epoch.  The  Indian,  if  not  bound  to  the  estate,  by  the  slavery  of 
debt,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  has  the  right  to  do  what  he  pleases, 
and  consequently  he  selects  that  labor  which  will  give  him  support 
with  least  fatigue  in  a  country  whose  soil  is  almost  spontaneously 
productive. 

The  Mexican  Indian,  may  therefore  be  generally  designated  as 
an  agriculturist.  A  few  of  them  engage  in  the  manufacture  of  cer- 
tain elegant  fabrics  of  wool  and  cotton ;  in  some  of  the  imitative 
arts,  in  which  they  greatly  excel ;  and  in  the  formation  of  utensils 
for  domestic  use. 

In  the  field,  the  Indian  executes  all  the  labor,  —  sometimes  in 
the  midst  of  the  great  plantations  of  sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  corn,  to- 
bacco, wheat,  and  barley  —  or,  at  others,  in  the  midst  of  the  beau- 
tiful gardens  for  which  some  parts  of  the  republic  are  celebrated. 
In  all  these  positions  his  labor  is  faithfully  performed  ;  —  but  he  is 
the  enemy  of  all  changes  in  the  modes  or  utensils  of  his  work. 
He  prefers  the  old  system  of  drawing  water  for  irrigation ;  the  old 
system  of  rooting  the  earth  with  the  Arab  stake  instead  of  the 
American  plough  ;  the  old  system  of  carrying  offal,  stones,  or  what- 


IMPROVIDENCE SUPERSTITION DRUNKENNESS.  31 

ever  is  to  be  removed  from  his  fields,  in  bags,  instead  of  in  barrows 
or  carts ;  and  the  old  system  of  bearing  every  burden,  no  matter 
how  onerous,  on  his  shoulders  instead  of  a  dray  or  a  wagon.  It 
offends  him  to  speak  of  changes,  which  he  regards  as  unrighteous 
innovations.  His  character,  like  that  of  the  Chinese,  is  one  of 
excessive  tenacity  for  old  customs.  After  three  centuries  of  con- 
stant intercourse  with  strange  races,  he  still  segregates  himself  from  i'. 
the  foreigner,  and,  nestling  in  his  native  village,  keeps  aloof  from 
the  Spaniard.  He  speaks  his  hereditary  language ;  clings  to  his 
old  habits  ;  and,  —  according  to  the  report  of  reliable  travellers,  — 
worships,  occasionally  in  private,  his  ancestral  idols.  In  the  capi- 
tal, garlands  which  have  been  secretly  suspended  on  the  images  by 
Indians,  are  still  sometimes  found  around  the  hideous  Aztec  di- 
vinities preserved  in  the  court  yard  of  the  University.  "  You  gave 
us  three  very  good  gods"  —  said  an  Indian  once  to  a  respectable 
Catholic  curate,  —  "yet  you  might  as  well  have  left  us  a  few  of 
our  own !  " 

Grave,  taciturn  and  distrustful,  —  types,  in  manners,  of  a  crushed  \ 
and  conquered  race,  —  the  Indians  of  Mexico,  wear  a  sombre  look 
and  demeanor^  accompanied  by  an  air  of  evident  submissiveness.  ' 
It  is  rare  to  find  them  merry,  except  at  the  end  of  harvest  on  the  large 
estates,  when  an  annual  festival  is  prepared,  in  which  they  are  ac- 
customed to  unite  with  great  zest.  They  have  other  periods  of 
cessation  from  toil,  such  as  the  Sabbath  day,  the  feasts  of  the  pa- 
tron saints  of  their  village  or  parish  church.  Upon  these  occasions 
their  devotion  to  the  externals  of  religion  is  exhibited  by  a  lavish 
expense  in  articles  which  they  imagine  may  contribute  to  the  honor 
or  glory  of  their  spiritual  protector  in  heaven.  In  order  to  cele- 
brate the  occasion  with  due  decorum,  according  to  their  simple 
ideas,  they  not  only  spend  whatever  money  they  happen  to  possess 
at  the  moment,  but  pledge  themselves,  in  advance,  at  the  haciendas^ 
for  the  loan  of  sums  which  they  must  repay  by  future  labor.  The 
result  is  that  these  superstitious  frivolities  consume  a  large  share  of '^^ 
the  Indian's  substance ;  and,  notwithstanding  his  economy  and 
irugality,  he  and  his  family  are  obliged  to  spend  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  in  misery,  in  recompense  for  the  rockets,  fire  crackers, 
music,  wax  candles,  and  flowers,  which  he  purchased  on  the  Festi- 
val of  his  Santo.  In  addition  to  these  ecclesiastical  costs,  we  must 
not  omit  his  personal  expenses,  for  the  Indian  does  not  forget 
his  bodily  condition  whilst  he  pays  attention  to  his  spiritual  wants. 
Liquor  and  gambling,  fill  up  the  occasional  pauses  in  the  pious 
ceremonials,  so  that  after  the  Indian  has  finished  his  religious  ser- 


32  INDIAN    WOMEN. 

vices  and  his  dinner  for  the  day,  it  is  (luite  likely  that  he  is  pre- 
pared to  creep  into  a  hovel  or  shelter  with  his  family,  where  thej 
may  sleep  off  the  debauch  that  universally  finishes  these  ecclesias- 
tical functions.  Similar  wild  indulgences  are  permitted  among 
tJiem  at  marriages,  baptisms  and  interments,  and  in  consequenre  of 
this  thriftlessness,  these  miserable  wretches  are  never  able  either  to 
/  leave  property  to  their  offspring  or  to  afford  them  an  education  by 
'  ^  which  they  may  improve  their  lot  in  life. 

The  Indian  woman  is  the  true  and  faithful  companion  of  her 
^  husband's  fortunes.  She  works  incessantly  at  her  appropriate 
tasks.  She  grinds  the  corn  for  the  tortillias  and  atole  of  thr  family, 
and  carries  them  to  her  husband  wherever  he  is  at  work  ;  she 
weaves,  in  her  rude  manner,  all  the  materials  of  cotton  or  wool  that 
are  worn  by  her  household ;  she  makes  the  garments  of  her  spouse 
and  children  ;  she  keeps  the  domestic  premises  in  order  v.ithout 
an  assistant ;  nor  does  she  cease,  for  a  moment,  to  nourish  and 
watch  her  offspring  during  their  infancy.  If  her  husband  departs 
to  another  district,  or  is  riilisted  as  a  soldier,  she  straps  her  j)ack 
and  her  youngest  child  on  her  back,  and  accompanies  her  liege 
lord,  whilst  a  train  of  their  mutual  descendants,  "  small  by  degrees 
and  beautifully  less,  "  follows  in  their  rear. 

We  have  said  that  the  Indians  are  frugal  in  their  food  and  eco- 
nomical in  their  dress,  for  in  reality,  their  meals  commonly  consist 
only  of  cereal  products,  and,  esj)ecially,  of  corn.  Atol(^,  tortillias, 
Chili  peppers  and  frijoles,  are  sufficient  to  support  them.  'I'hey  do 
not  eat  flesh  habitually,  and  yet  they  are  healthy  and  robust,  nor  is 
it  extraordinary  to  see  individuals  among  them  who  attain  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  more  than  of  ninety  years. 

Their  occasional  indulgence  in  drunkenness,  disgusting  and  inju- 
rious as  it  is  at  the  moment,  does  not  generally  destroy  the  consti- 
tutions of  these  hardy  laborers,  whose  subsequent  compulsory  tem- 
perance, not  only  in  drink  but  in  food,  soon  repairs  the  momentary 
inroads  of  a  day's  debauch. 

The  dress  of  both  men  and  women  is  the  simplest  and  the 
cheapest  possible.  In  the  state  of  ignorance  and  abjection  in 
which  this  race  has  been  so  long  held,  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive 
whether  their  intellectual  faculties  might  be  again  aroused.  In 
some  of  the  colleges  of  Mexico,  individuals  have  applied  them- 
selves with  great  care,  have  received  classical  educations,  and 
made  remarkable  progress  even  in  the  sciences,  in  some  of  which 
they  excelled.  But  generally  speaking,  these  instances  may  be 
regarded   as    remarkable    exceptions.     The    Indian,   as   we   have 


SERVILE    CONDITION LOCAL    ADHESIVENESS.  33 

before  observed,  when  he  quits  the  agricultural  field,  exhibits 
most  talent  in  the  imitative  arts.  The  instruments  and  mate- 
rials he  uses  are  of  the  simplest  and  rudest  kind,  and,  althouo-h 
the  imitations  produced  by  him  are  wonderfully  accurate,  yet 
they  want  that  lively  variety  which  is  only  produced  by  vivid 
imaginations. 

Upon  the  plantations  the  Indians  are  in  reality  slaves,  notwith- 
standing the  Mexican  laws  prohibit  slavery.  This  condition  is 
produced  chiefly  by  two  causes.  The  Mexican  Indian  who  cher- 
ishes, as  we  have  seen,  a  remarkable  devotion  to  his  old  habits, 
customs,  utensils  and  implements,  is  gifted  with  an  equal  tenacity 
or  adhesiveness  for  the  place  of  his  birth.  Nomadic  as  were  his 
ancestors,  the  modern  Mexican  Indian  is  no  wanderer.  The  idea 
of  emigration,  even  to  another  state  or  district,  never  originates  in 
his  brain,  or  is  tolerated  if  proposed  to  him  as  a  voluntary  act.  So 
hel])less  is  his  condition  if  placed  beyond  the  limits  of  his  habitual 
neighborhood  or  hereditary  haunts,  that  he  feels  himself  perfectly 
lost,  abandoned  and  cast  off,  if  compelled  to  change  either  his  resi- 
dence or  his  occupation.  He  has  no  variety  of  resources.  He 
knows  nothing  of  alternatives.  The  operations  of  his  mind,  as 
well  as  of  his  hand,  are  perfectly  mechanical.  The  utter  helpless- 
ness of  such  an  individual,  if  suddenly  transferred  from  the  midst 
of  his  companions  and  all  the  scenes  of  his  life-long  associations  or 
duties,  may  be  easily  conceived,  and  consequently  the  greatest 
punishment  that  a  haciendado^  or  Mexican  planter,  can  inflict  upon 
his  Indian  serf  is  to  expel  him  from  the  estate  upon  which  he  and 
his  ancestors  have  worked  from  time  immemorial.  When  other 
punishments,  which  elsewhere  would  be  thought  severe,  fail  to 
produce  reform  or  amendment  in  the  Indian's  conduct,  it  usually 
happens,  that  the  serious  threat  of  expulsion  from  the  estate,  made 
by  the  owner  himself,  or  his  authorised  representative,  to  the  na- 
tive, reduces  the  refractory  individval  to  subjection.  Thus  it  is, 
that  this  peculiar  territorial  and  local  adhesiveness  contributes  to 
making  the  Indian's  condition  not  only  menial  but  servile. 

The  second  cause  may  be  Ibund  in  the  habits  of  wild  and  ex- 
travagant indulgence  which  we  have  already  described.  These 
licentious  outbursts  of  recklessness  create  a  pecuniary  bond  between 
'  the  proprietor  and  his  laborer.  The  Indian  becomes  his  debtor. 
It  is  the  policy  of  the  landholder  to  establish  this  relation  between 
himself  and  the  Indian,  and  consequently  he  affords  him  every  fa- 
cility lo  sell  himself  in  advance,  even  for  life,  to  his  estate.  The 
Indian,  is  thus  at  least   completely  mortgaged  to  the  landed   pro- 

E 


34  PLO.sAGK  V.IIII'PING PLANTER-LIFK. 

prietor,  and  as  that  personage  usually  possesses  considerable  in- 
fluence in  his  neighborhood,  the  laborer  finds  it  extremely  difficult 
or  nearly  impossible  to  enforce  his  freedom  even  by  appeals  to  the 
legal  authorities.  Such  is  the  origin  and  system  of  peonage,  which 
still  curses  Mexico  although  the  repartimientos  and  slavery  have 
been  abolished  by  fundamental  laws. 

We  have  observed  that  there  are  other  punishments  of  the  In- 
dians resorted  to  on  Mexican  plantations  for  trifling  faults  or  mis- 
demeanors, besides  the  great  and  final  calamity  of  expulsion. 
They  are  fined  and  they  are  flogged.  "  Looking  into  the  corri- 
dor," says  Mr.  Stephens,  in  his  work  on  Yucatan,  "  we  saw  a 
poor  Indian  on  his  knees,  on  the  pavement,  with  his  arms  clasped 
around  the  knees  of  another  Indian,  so  as  to  present  his  back  fairly 
to  the  lash.  At  every  blow  he  rose  on  one  knee  and  sent  forth  a 
piercing  cry,  he  seemed  struggling  to  retain  it,  but  it  burst  forth  in 
spite  of  all  his  efforts.  His  whole  bearing  showed  the  gubdued 
character  of  the  present  Indians,  and  with  the  last  stripe  the  ex- 
pression of  his  face  seemed  that  of  thankfulness  for  not  getting 
more.  Without  uttering  a  word,  he  crept  to  the  major-domo,  took 
his  hand,  kissed  it,  and  walked  away.  No  sense  of  degradation 
crossed  his  mind.  Indeed,  so  humbled  is_ tills  once  fierce  people 
that  they  have  j^^proyerb-/>f  thpir  nwp  -  "  Los  Indios  no  oyien  sino 
por  las  nalgas,"  —  "The  Indians  only  hear  through  their  backs." 

This  hereditary  condition  ot  relation  between  the  Indian  and 
the  original  Spanish  races  has  acted  and  i£zii£ted  for  their  mutual 
degradation.  With  a  large  population  under  his  control,  for  all 
purposes  of  labor  and  menial  toil,  the  Spaniard,  of  whatever  class, 
found  himself  entirely  free  from  the  necessity  of  manual  labor  or 
mechanical  pursuits.  Notwithstanding  this  immunity  from  bodily 
toil,  the  native  of  Castile  did  not  devote  the  leisure  he  enjoyed, 
whilst  the  Indians  were  working  for  him,  either  to  the  improve- 
ment of  his  mind,  or  the  preparation  of  philanthropic  plans  for  the 
amelioration  of  his  servant's  lot.  A  mere  physical  life  of  personal 
indulgence,  or  an  avaricious  devotion  to  the  rapid  acquisition  of 
fortune,  absorbed  the  whole  time  of  these  planters,  who  lived  in 
almost  utter  seclusion  amid  the  lonely  wastes  of  their  large  terri- 
torial possessions.  The  planter  who  resides  in  a  populous  nation, 
or  who  is  enabled  to  visit  easily  the  capitals  of  commerce,  literature, 
and  art,  is  a  man,  who,  from  his  personal  independence,  culture,  and 
wealth,  IS  usually  in  our  own  country  to  be  envied  for  the  peculiai 
privileges  which  his  station  affords  him.     But  in  Mexico,  the  posi 


PLANTER-LIFE ITS    SOLITUDE    AND    RESULTS.  35 

tion  and  education  of  the  planter,  if  he  lives  constantly  on  his  estate, 
—  which  is  not  universally  the  case,  —  are  altogether  different  from 
those  of  the  North  American  land-holder.  The  Mexican  possesses 
few  or  none  of  those  social  and  intellectual  qualities  that  have 
been  cultivated  by  the  North  American  in  the  best  colleges  and 
circles  of  his  country' ;  nor  does  he  enjoy  equal  facilities  of  inter- 
communication between  the  cities  or  rural  districts  of  Mexico. 
The  immense  size  of  his  plantation  which  sometimes  extends 
several  leagues  in  length  and  breadth,  necessarily  disperses  instead 
of  congregating  a  populous  neighborhood.  "  He  is  master  of  all 
he  surveys,  —  he  is  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute,"  but  his  domin- 
ion is  a  solitary  and  cheerless  one.  Few,  and  irregular  posts 
rarely  bring  him  the  news  of  what  occurs  in  the  great  world. 
Visits  are  seldom  and  ceremoniously  paid.  He  must  find  within 
himself  the  constant  springing  source  of  vivacity  and  of  an  ambi- 
tious desire  for  progress,  or  he  must  subside  into  mere  animal  exis- 
tence. The  latter  is  unfortunately  in  most  instances  the  natural 
result,  and  it  is  therefore  not  at  all  astonishing  to  find  Mexican 
planters  or  their  mayordomos  devoting  all  their  energies  to  the 
maintenance  of  the  servile  system  we  have  described,  whilst  their 
statute-book  and  constitution  profess  to  have  abolished  slavery. 
Whilst  such  is  the  effect  upon  the, character  of  the  master  or^ 
his  representaUye,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  character  of  the 
servant  will  be  equally  degraded  by  the  want  of  those  new  ideas 
with  which  the  constant  refreshing  intercourse  of  society  ventilates 
the  mind.  The  Indian  knows  no  world  but  that  bounded^by  his 
hori2;i)n.  Slavery,  when  involuntary,  may  even  be  respected  in  the 
sufferer,  but  the  Indian  who  hecomesj^lave^in^  spite^  of  law,  by 
religious  superstition,  loathsome  vices,  and  time-hallowed  servUity, 
sinks  far  below  the  level  of  the  African,  who  is  sober,  careful,  faiths 
ful  to  his  ^masteiL  and  his  family,  and  either  from  imitation,  or  a 
degree  of  natural  jjignity,  seeks  to  acquire  respectability  among  his 
fellow  slaves^ 

'^'^  It  is  hardly  possible,"  says  Miihlenpfordt,  "to  judge  of  the 
true  character  and  intellectual  capacity  of  the  Indian  at  a  time  when 
he  has  but  just  partially  recovered  his  rights  as  man,  and  has  had 
little  opportunity  of  giving  independent  culture  to  his  mental  facul- 
ties. Though  the  civic  oppression  under  which  the  Spaniards  and 
Creoles  held  all  the  copper  colored  raca  and  the  colored  people  gen- 
erally before  the  revolution,  has,  for  the  most  part  disappeared,  yet 
their  emancipation  has,  as  yet,  only  nominally  taken  place.  Hier- 
archial  oppression  has  yet  hardly  decreased,  and  the  clergy,  both 


X 


36  MUHLENPFOUDt's  character    of    the    INDIANS. 

the  inferior  secular  priests  and  the  monks  who  have  the  greatest 
influence  over  the  Indians,  find  their  account  in  declining  to  pro- 
mote, if  they  do  not  positively  retard,  their  intellectual  develop- 
ment. Time  only  can  inform  us  what  advantages  will  accrue  to 
the  Indians  from  the  new  order  of  things.  Up  to  this  period  the 
introduction  of  the  boasted  civilization  of  Europe,  as  well  as  of  the 
Catholic  religion,  has  been  of  but  trifling  benefit  to  them,  and  only 
a  trace  here  and  there  of  progress  to  an  amelioration  of  their  con- 
dition is  to  be  remarked. 

"  The  Mexican  Indian  of  the  present  day  is  generally  grave  and 
taciturn,  and  almost  sullen,  when  not  excited  by  music  and  intoxi- 
cating drinks  to  loqu^icity-and-^ileasur-e.  This  serious  character 
may  be  remarked  even  in  the  children,  who  appear  more  knowing 
at  the  age  of  five  or  six,  than  those  of  northern  Europeans  at  that 
of  nine  or  ten.  But  this  appearance  of  stead inesg  is  by  no  means 
consequent  on  a  quicker  development  of  mind,  and  the  looks  of 
these  young  people,  dejected  and  void  of  all  the  ciieerfulness  and 
confidence  of  children,  have  nothing  that  gladdens  the  observer. 
Gruflfness  and  reserve  appear  to  be  essential  features  of  the  Indian 
character,  and  it  cannot,  I  think,  be  assumed  that  these  qualities 
were  implanted  in  them  only  by  the  long  oppression  that  weighed 
down  the  Mexican  race,  first  under  their  native  rulers,  and  after- 
wards under  the  Spaniards  ;  inasmuch  as  they  occur  among  the 
aborigines  almost  universally  tinoughout  America,  even  when  these 
have  never  suffered  any  curtailment  of  political  liberty.  To  that 
cause  may  be  rather  attributed  the  stubbornness  and  selfishness 
which  constitute  a  striking  trait  in  the  character  of  the  present  In- 
dians. It  is  almost  impossible  to  move  any  Indian  to  do  a  thing 
which  they  have  resolved  not  to  do.  Vehemence,  threats,  even 
corporal  punishment,  are  of  as  little  avail  as  the  offer  of  gold  or 
reward  ;  persuasion,  coaxing,  entreaties  help  as  little.  The  Mexi- 
can Indian  loves  to  give  an  appearance  of  mystery  and  importance 
to  his  most  indifferent  actions.  If  stirred  up  by  weighty  interests, 
he  breaks  his  accustomed  silence,  and  speaks  with  energy  but  never 
with  fire.  Jokes  are  as  rare  w^ith  him  as  raillery  and  laughter.  I 
never  heard  an  Indian  laugh  heartily,  even  w^hen  excited  by  spirit- 
uous liquors.  His  uncommon  hardness  of  character  allows  him 
long  to  conceal  the  passions  of  indignation  and  vengeance.  No 
sign  betrays  externally  the  fire  that  rages  within  until  it  suddenly 
breaks  out  with  uncontrollable  violence.  In  this  condition  the 
Indian  is  most  likely  inclined  to  commit  the  most  dreadful  cruelties 
and  the  most  fearful  crimes.     The  Mexican   aborigines   bear  with 


INDIAN    TRIBES    AND    RACES    IN    MEXICO. 


37 


the  greatest  patience  the  torments  which  the  whites  were  formerly 
and  are  still  inclined  to  indulge  against  them.  They  oppose  to 
these  a  cunning  which  they  dexterously  hide  under  a  semblance  of 
indifference  and  stupidity.  Despite  their  long  slavery ;  despite 
every  effort  which  has  been  employed  to  rob  them  of  their  historical 
recollections,  they  have  by  no  means  forgotten  their  former  great- 
ness. They  know  right  well  that  they  were  once  sole  lords  of  the 
land,  and  that  those  Creoles  who  are  so  fond  of  calling  themselves 
Americans,  are  but  the  sons  and  heirs  of  their  oppressors.  I  have 
myself  frequently  heard  Indians,  when  their  ordinary  reserve  has 
been  overcome  by  spirituous  liquors,  declare  that  they  were  the  true 
masters  of  the  country,  that  all  others  were  mere  foreign  intruders, 
and  that  if  the  Creoles  could  expel  the  Spaniards  they  had  a  far 
better  right  to  expel  the  Creoles.  May  the  latter  be  taught  by 
their  own  acuteness  to  grant  the  Indians,  while  it  is  yet  time,  the 
practical  exercise  of  these  civic  rights  theoretically  conceded  to 
them,  for  the  revolt  of  the  copper  colored  race  would  indeed  pre- 
sent a  fearful  spectacle  !" 

INDIAN    TRIBES    OR    RACES    IN    MEXICO 
IN  THE  STATE  OF  YUCATAN. 

1.   Mayas. 

IN  THE  STATES  OF  CHIAPAS  AND  TABASCO. 

2  Teochiapan^cos,        3  Zoques,  4  Cendales, 

5  Mames. 

IN  THE  STATE  OF  OAJACA. 


6  Zapot^cas, 

7  Mixtecos, 

8  Mixes, 

9  Chinanutecos, 

10  Chontales, 

11  Cuicatecos, 


18  Soltecos, 

19  Triques, 

20  Pabucos, 

21  Amusagos, 

22  Zoques, 


12  Chochos, 

13  Chatenos, 

14  Iluabes, 

15  Huatequimanes, 

16  Izcatecos, 

17  Almoloyas,  a  few.  23  Aztteos. 

IN  THE  STATES  OF  MEXICO,  PUEBLA  AND  VERA  CRUZ. 

24  Aztecos,  27  Tlapanecos,      '       29  Huast^cos, 

25  Totonaques,  28  Mixtecos,  30  Cuitlatecos. 

26  Popolucas, 

IN  THE  STATE  OF  QUERETARO. 

31  Otomes,  32  Chichimecas,  and  a  few  Aztecos. 

IN  THE  STATE  OF  MICIIOACAN. 

33  Tarrascos,  34  Otomes. 

IN  THE  STATE  OF   GUANAJUATO. 

35  Pamos,  37  Samues,  39  Guamanes, 

36  Capuces,  38  Mayolias,  40  Guachichiles. 


38 


INDIAN    TRIBES    AND    RACES    IN    MEXICO. 


45  Matlacingos, 

46  Jaliscos. 


IN  THE  STATE  OP  JALISCO. 

41  Cazcanes,  43  Guamanes, 

42  Guachichiles,  44  Tenoxquines, 

STATES  OF  SAN  LUIS  POTOSI,  NEW  LEON  AND  TAMAULIPAS. 

47  Chichiraecas,  Aztecos,  or  Tlascaltecas. 

IN  THE  STATES  OF  DURANGO  AND  CHIHUAHUA. 


48  Tepehuan^s, 

49  Topias, 

50  Acaxis, 

51  Xiximes, 

59  Coras, 

60  Nayarites, 

65  Mayos, 

66  Zuaques, 

67  Hiaquis, 

68  Yaquis, 

69  Guazare, 

70  Ahome, 

71  Ocoromi, 

72  Tegueca, 

73  Tepahue, 

74  Zoe, 

75  Huite, 

76  Guaymas, 

77  Pimas-bajos, 

78  Mobas, 

79  Onabas, 

80  Nures, 


52  Sicurabas, 

53  Himas, 

54  Huimis, 

55  Acotlanes, 


56  Cocoyames, 

57  Yanos, 

58  Tarahumares. 


IN  THE  STATE  OF  SINALOA. 

61  Hueicolhues,         63  Cinaloas, 

62  Tubaras,  64  Cahitas. 

IN  THE  STATE  OF  SONORA. 


85  Sonoras, 

86  Eudebes, 

87  Opatas, 

88  Seres, 

89  Tiburones, 

90  Pipos-altos 


105  Apaches-mimbre- 

nos, 

106  Apaches-Chirica- 

guis, 

107  Yabipais  or  Yabi- 

pias, 


91  Papagos  or  Papa-  108  Jalchedumes, 
hi-Ootam,  109  Juniguis, 


92  Yumas, 

93  Cucapachas, 

94  Coanopas, 

95  Cajuenches, 

96  Cutguanes, 

97  Hoahon6mos. 

98  Bagi6pas, 

99  Quiquimas, 


110  Yamagas, 

111  Chemeonahas    or 

Chemeguabas, 

112  Cosninas, 

113  Moquis, 

114  Navajos, 

115  Timpachis, 

116  Yutas, 


81  Saboribas  or  Sisi-  100  Cocomaricopas,    117  Tabeguachis 

bolaris,  101  Apaches-tontos     118  Payuches, 

82  Huras,  102  Pimas-gilenos,       119  Talarenos, 

83  Heris,  103  Apaches-gilenos,  120  Raguapuis. 

84  Sabaipures,  104  Nijoras, 

IN  OLD  CALIFORNIA. 

121  Pericuis,  124  Coras,  128  Utschetas, 

122  Monquis  or  Men-  125  Cochimas,  129  Vehitis, 

guis,  126  Colimies,  130  leas. 

123  Guaycuras,  127  Laimones, 


TABLE    OF    CASTES    IN    MEXICO. 


39 


IN  NEW  CALIFORNIA. 


131  Rumsenes,  134  Achastlies,  136  Salses, 

132  Escelenes,  135  Matalanes,  137  Quirotes. 

133  Eclemaches, 

IN  NEW  MEXICO  AND  PART  OF  TEXAS. 


138  Keras, 

139  Piras, 

140  Xuinanas, 

141  Zuras, 

142  Pecuris, 

143  Cumanches, 


144  Jetans,  149  Nanahas, 

145  Tetans  or  Tetaus,  150  Apuches-llaneroSy 

146  Yutas,  151  Lipans, 

147  Kiaways,  152  Faraones, 

148  Apaches,  153  Mescaleros. 


The  following  table  exhibits,  in  separate  groups,  the  varieties  of 
parentage  and  blood,  forming  the  castes  in  Mexico  and.  through- 
out Spanish  America : 


TABLE    OF    C  ASTES, 
1.  ORIGINAL  RACES. 


PARENTS. 

White. 

Negro. 
Indian. 


European  whites  are  called  gachupmes  ox  chapetones 
WhiteSj  born  in  the  colonies,  are  called  Creoles. 


2.  CASTES  OF  WHITE  RACE. 


PARENTS. 

CHILDREN. 

White  father  and  Negro  mother, 

Mulatto. 

White 

a 

Indian       " 

Mestizo. 

White 

(( 

Mulatto    " 

Quarteron. 
■  Creole,  (  only  distinguishable 

White 

(C 

Mestiza    "      < 

from  the  white  by   a  pale 
brown  complexion.  ) 

White 

(C 

China        " 

Chino-blanco. 

White 

(( 

Quarterona 

Quintero. 

White 

(( 

Quintera   " 

White. 

3.  CASTES  OF  NEGRO  RACE. 

PARENTS. 

CHILDREN. 

Negro  1 

father  and  Mulatto  mother 

,  Zambo-negro. 

Negro 

(( 

Mestiza       " 

Mulatto-oscuro. 

Negro 

a 

China          " 

Zambo-chino. 

Negro 

IC 

Zamba        " 

Zambo  and  Negro,  (perfectly 
black.) 

Negro 

u 

(  Quarterona  ^^ 
}  or  Quintera 

Dark  Mulatto. 

40 


TABLE    OF    CASTES    IN    MEXICO. 


4.  CASTES  OF  INDIAN  RACE. 


CHILDREN. 


Indian  father  and  Negro  mother,  Chino. 


Indian 
Indian 

Indian 
Indian 
Indian 

Indian 


Mulatto     "       Chino-oscuro. 
Mestiza    "       Mestizo-claro,  often  very  beau- 
tiful. 
China        "       Chino-cholo. 
Zamba      "       Zambo-claro. 
China-cholo      Indian,  with  short  frizzily  hair. 

Quarterona        j.  -^j     .. 

r\  ■  j^  Brown  Meztizo. 

or  Quintera 

5.  MULATTO  CORRUPTION 


PARENTS.  CHILDREN. 

Mulatto  father  and  Zamba  mother,  Zambo,  (  a  miserable  race.  ) 
Mulatto  "        Mestiza     "         Chino,  ( rather  clear  race.) 

Mulatto  "        China        "          Chino,  ( rather  dark.  ) 

Besides  these  specified  castes  there  are  several  others  not  dis- 
tinguished by  particular  names  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  produce 
of  unions  between  the  Mexican  Indians  or  Spaniards  and  the 
people  of  the  East  Indian  continent  or  Philipines,  numbers  of 
whom  came  over  during  the  old  viceroyal  government.  The  best 
criterion  for  judging  of  the  purity  of  blood,  is  the  hair  of  the 
women,  which  is  much  less  deceiving  than  their  complexion.  The 
short  woolly  hair,  or  coarse  Indian  locks,  may  always  be  detected 
on  the  head  or  on  the  back  of  the  neck.  This  tabular  statement 
exhibits  at  a  glance  the  mongrel  corruptions  of  the  human  race  in 
Mexico,  and  presents  an  interesting  subject  for  students  of  physi- 
ology and  ethnology.  ^ 


'  See  Tschudi's  Peru  —  American  Edition,  p.  80,  and  Muhlenpfordt  —  Die  Re- 
publik  Mejico,  vol.  1;  —  Indians. 


CHAPTER    III. 

Population. 


POPULATION CENSUS. TABLES      OF     POPULATION    RELATIVE 

DIVISION    OF    RACES.  RELATIVE   INTELLECTUAL    CULTIVATION. 

RELATIVE     POPULATION    IN    HOT    AND    COLD     DISTRICTS. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  very  accurate  census  of  Mexico  has 
ever  been  made,  and  that  since  the  year  1831,  no  effort  has  been 
persistently  pursued  by  the  government  to  enumerate  its  citizens 
and  collect  such  statistical  data  as  may  always  be  easily  gathered 
by  persons  engaged  in  this  important  task.  The  irregularity  of  the 
central  or  executive  power ;  the  instability  of  all  governments 
since  the  establishment  of  independence ;  the  intestine  quarrels,  not 
only  in  the  capital  but  in  the  departments  or  states,  have  all  contri- 
buted to,  and  even  partially  compelled,  this  neglect  of  a  great  na- 
tional duty. 

In  the  absence,  therefore,  of  official  statistics  and  reports,  we 
are  obliged  to  rely  upon  approximate  results,  founded  on  the  partial 
enumerations  of  preceding  years  and  the  calculations  of  experi- 
enced statesmen  and  writers.  In  the  folio wingf  table  we  shall  ex- 
hibit  all  the  most  trustworthy  statements  existing  either  in  Mexi- 
can works  or  in  the  writings  of  reliable  authors  :  — 

Variances  between  the  different  Calculations  and  Cen- 
suses OF  THE  Population  of  Mexico. 
Tears.  •  No.  of  Inhabitants. 

1793 — Census  of  the  Viceroy  Revilla-Gigedo,  including 
Vera   Cruz   and   Guadalajara," according  to  an 

estimate  in  1803, 5,270,029 

1803 — Geographico-political  tables  of  New  Spain,  5,764,731 

1810 — Semanario  economico  of  Mexico,  .  .         5,810,005 

1820 — Navarro's  Memorial   on   the   population  of  the 

kingdom  of  New  Spain,      ....     6,122,354 
Calculation  of  the  first  Congress,           .         .         6,204,000 
1831 — Actual  census  of  the  Mexican  Republic,  publish- 
ed by  Valdes,    6,382,264 

p 


42 


TABLES    OF    POPULATION. 


Years.  No.  of  Inhabitants. 

1824— Hon.  J.  R.  Poinsett,  •         .         .         .         6,500,000 

1825— Humboldt,  about, 7,000,000 

1838 — Report  of  Commissioner  of  Chamber  of  Deputies,  7,009,120 
1834— Galvan's  Mexican  Calendar,        .         .         .         7,734,292 
1836 — Notices  of  the  states  and  territories  of  the  Mexi- 
can nation,         ......     7,843,132 

1830— Mr.  Burkhardt  — a  German  author,      .          .          7,996,000 
1842 — An  estimate  made  as  the  basis  for  the  election  of 

a  Congress,  (exclusive  of  Texas,)        .         .     7,015,509 

In  the  year  1838,  Senor  Jose  Gomez  de  la  Cortina,  —  ex-Conde 
de  la  Cortina,  one  of  the  most  enlightened  citizens  of  Mexico,  pub- 
lished a  carefully  prepared  essay  upon  the  population  of  Mexico, 
in  the  1st  No.  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  National  Institute  of  Geogra- 
phy and  Statistics  of  the  Mexican  Republic  ;  and  his  opinion  was 
that  the  number  of  inhabitants  greatly  exceeded  any  of  the  above 
amounts.  By  observing  the  increase  of  population  in  different 
periods  of  five  years,  he  considered  it  satisfactorily  proved  by  the 
Tahlas  Geographico-politicas,  of  1803,  that  the  augmentation,  in 
favorable  years,  was  at  the  rate  1|  per  cent.  By  applying  this 
ratio  to  the  census  of  the  Tahlas,  which  gave  in  1803,  5,764,731 
inhabitants,  we  shall  have  an  increase  of  about  105,000  yearly; 
and  if  we  calculate  at  this  rate  of  augmentation  for  the  46  inter- 
vening years,  we  find  in  1850  an  increase  of  4,830,000,  or  a  grand 
total  of  10,594,731. 

In  the  year  1842,  however,  when  an  estimate  was  made  of  a 
basis  of  population,  upon  which  to  found  a  call  for  a  Congress  to 
form  a  new  constitution  under  the  plan  of  Tacubaya,  in  23  Depart- 
ments or  States  and  Territories,  exclusive  of  Texas,  the  govern- 
ment calculated  that  there  were  7,015,509  inhabitants. 


Table  of  Population  in  1842. 

Departments. 

Mexico,   . 
Jalisco, 


Puefbla,     . 
Yucatan, 
Guanajuato, 
Oajaca, 
Michoacan, 
San  Luis  Potosi, 
Zacatecas, 
Vera  Cruz,  . 


Population. 

1,389,502 

679,311 
.  661,902 

508,948 
.  512,606 

500,278 
.  497,906 

321,840 
.  273,575 

254,380 


RELATIVE    DIVISION    OF    RACES. 


43 


Departments. 

Population 

Durango, 

.  162,618 

Chihuahua, 

147,600 

Sinaloa,    . 

.  147,000 

Chiapas, 

141,206 

Sonera,     . 

.  124,000 

Queretaro,  . 

120,560 

Nuevo  Leon,    . 

.  101,108 

Tamaulipas, 

100,068 

Coahuila, 

.     75,340 

Aguas  Calientes, 

69,698 

Tabasco,  . 

.     63,580 

Nuevo  Mexico,     . 

57,026 

Californias, 

.     33,439 

7,015,509 

f  New  Mexico, 

57,026 

■nw    1     i  r       J  Upper  California,  since 
Deduct  for  <{     ^/jj^j  ^^  ^^^  United 

States. 


25,000 

82,026  —  82,026 


Estimated  actual  population  in  1842,         .         .    6,933,483 
Add  10  per  cent,  for  the  probable  increase  in  7  years    693,348 


Proximate  actual  population  in  1850,  .         7,626,831 

This  population  may  be  relatively  classed  among  races  and  castes 
as  follows : 

4,354,886         .         Indians. 
1,100,000    .         .     Whites. 

2,165,345        .         Meztizos,  Zambos,  Mulattoes,  &c. 
6,600    .         .    Negroes. 


7,626,831 


As  Mexico,  since  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  in  1848, 
possesses  798,402  square  miles,  this  will  give  nine  inhabitants  and 
a  fraction,  to  the  square  mile. 

From  these  calculations  we  deduce  some  very  important  facts  as 
to  the  physical  and  intellectual  condition  of  Mexico,  which  are  very 
significant  in  the  illustration  of  history.  It  appears  that  the  total 
number  of  pure  whites  in  the  republic,  is,  in  all  probability,  not 
more  than  1,100,000;  while  the  Indians,  Negroes,  Zambos,  Mulat- 
toes, Meztizos,  and  all  the  mixed  bloods,  amount  to  6,526,831. 
During  our  residence  in  Mexico  we  ascertained  from  reliable  au- 
thority that  among  the  Indians  and  negroes  but  two  per  cent,  could 


44  RELATIVE    INTELLECTUAL    CULTIVATION. 

read  and  write,  while  among  the  whites,  and  castes,  but  twenty 
per  cent,  were  estimated  to  enjoy  those  benefits.     Thus  we  have: 
87,229         Indians  and  Negroes  able  to  read  and  write. 

653,069  Whites  and  mixed  castes  able  to  read  and  write ; 
or,  only  seven  hundred  and  forty  thousand,  two  hundred  and  nine- 
ty-eight individuals,  either  completely  educated  or  instructed  in  the 
simplest  rudiments,  out  of  a  population  of  more  than  seven  and  a 
half  millions.  These  are  startling  statistics  in  regard  to  the  citi- 
zens of  a  nation  whose  government  is  theoretically  and  practically 
based  on  the  culture  of  the  people  or  their  capacity  for  self-rule ; 
and,  when  considered  in  connexion  with  the  historical  details  pre- 
sented in  the  first  volume  of  this  work,  they  will  show  that  the  dis- 
tracted condition  of  Mexico  is  a  mingled  cause  and  consequence  of 
her  intellectual  darkness. ' 

One  of  the  most  interesting  investigations  in  Mexican  statistics 
would  be  to  compare  the  number  of  births  in  the  regions  called  the 
tierras  calientes  —  or  hot  country,  with  those  in  the  tierras  frias,  or 
cold  region.  From  calculations  made  by  Cortina  in  1838,  from 
data  derived  from  nine  departments,  he  concluded  that  the  excess 
of  births  in  the  warm  regions  or  tierras  calientes  was  1^'^  per  100, 
over  the  tierras  frias. 

He  gives  the  following  actual  statistics  in  evidence : 

1st.  Result  of  the  general  census  of  the  department  of  Zaca- 
TECAS  since  the  year  1824,  and  progressive  increase  of  population 
therein  before  the  separation  of  the  portion  of  Aguas  Calientes  :  — 

Years.  Total  population.  Increase  of  population  biennially. 

1824  .         .         .     247,295 1  .         .         .     25,606 

1826          .         .          272,901  I  636 

1828  .         .         .     274,537  '          *         ,    ''^^ 

1830         .         .          290,044  *         "         '         ' 

1832  .         .         .     314,12U  •          •         24,077 

1834         .         .          331,781  S  •         •         •     1^^.660 

2d.  In  1836,  after  the  separation  of  the  portion  of  Aguas  Calien- 
tes, this  department  had  .         .         .  264,505  inhabitants. 
In  June,  1838,  it  had     ....     273,575 


Increase  in  one  year  and  a  half,  .          .  9,070 

'  It  is  just  to  Mexico  to  state  that  Cortina,  in  the  article  previously  referred  to, 
estimates  the  number  of  persons  able  to  read  and  write,  to  be  much  larger;  but  his 
calculations  are  doubtless  made  with  the  partiality  of  a  native,  and  are  based  on  a 
limited  observation  of  city  life,  the  army  and  municipal  prisons. 


RELATIVE    POPULATION    IN    HOT    AND    COLD    DISTRICTS.         45 

3(1.  In  the  period  from  1st  of  January,  1837  to  30th  of  June, 
1838,  there  were  born  in  the  said  department,    21,941 
Died  in  the  said  department,         .          .  12,871 


Increase  of  population,     ....       9,070 

4th.  In  the  department  of  Oajaca  in  1834,  it  was  calculated  that 

there  were 457,033  inhabitants. 

In  December,  1838,  ....         500,278  " 


Increase  in  four  years,    ....      43,245 

RESULTS. 

Maximum  of  annual  increase  of  population  in  Oajaca,  15,000 
Minimum  "  "  "  "  6,000 

Maximum  cc  c.  «  Zacatecas  12,000 

Minimum  "  "  "  "  500 

Of  not  less  importance  are  the  investigations  upon  the  excess 
observed  in   one  sex  over  the   other.     Before  the   appearance  of 
Humboldt's  work  it  was  the  opinion  that  in  the  New  World  nature 
did   not  follow  the  same  law  of  equilibrium  in  the  difference  be- 
tween the  sexes  as  in  Europe,  and  especially  that  in  the  tropical 
regions,  the  number  of  females  exceeded  greatly  that  of  the  males. 
Baron  Humboldt  combated  this  notion  and  demonstrated  its  error. 
He  presents  in  his  political  essay  upon  New  Spain  a  table  of  the 
population  of  eight  Intendencies,  in  which  it  appears  that  out  of 
1,352,835  inhabitants  there  were  687,935  males  and  664,900  fe- 
males, which  establishes  a  relative  proportion  of  100  to  95.     In 
the    Tablets  Geografico  politicas,  already  cited,  it  is  expressly  said 
that  in  New  Spain,  in  the  Intendencies  of  the  tierras  frias^  or  cold 
regions,  as  well  as  in  those  of  the  tierras  calientes,  or  hot  regions, 
the  population  inclines  to  a  preponderance  of  males.     Don  Fernando 
Navarro  y  Noriega  gives  in  his  tables  of  population  71,642  more 
males  than  females;  and,  in  the  account  of  the  taxes  made  by  order 
of  the   government  in   1781,  it  appears  that  the  excess  is  still  in 
favor  of  males,  though  in  a  much  less  proportion  than  assigned  by 
Baron  Humboldt.     We  present  the  following  table,  prepared  in 
Mexico  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  more  light  on  the  subject: 


46         RELATIVE    POPULATION    IN    HOT    AND    COLD    DISTRICTS. 


Table    of  Population   in   various   Departments    in   different 
YEARS — Relative  exceess  —  Births  and  deaths. 


Years. 

Departments,    States,   or 
of  States. 

Cantons 

Males. 

Females. 

Excess   Excess 
males,  females. 

1829 

New  Mexico 

. 

21,799 

21,640 

1.59 

1819 

Alta  California  . 

. 

10,979 

9,107 

1,872 

1830 

Do.       do. 

. 

12,473 

10,011 

2,462 

1832 

Nuevo  Leon 

. 

49,571 

48,601 

970 

1829 

San  Luis  Potosi. — See 
ing  table. 

follow- 

1832 

Oajaca 

. 

237,127 

247,887 

.      .    10,760 

1823 

Michoacan 

. 

178,052 

187,028 

.      .      8,976 

'  Canton  of  Vera  Cruz 

. 

29,851 

31,695 

.      .      1,844 

"      of  Misantla    . 

. 

2,451 

2,658 

.      .         207 

1831< 

"      of  Papantla 

. 

4,279 

4,225 

54 

"      of  Tampico    . 

. 

11,112 

12,265 

.      .      1,153 

"      of  Jalacingo 

. 

7,816 

8,046 

.      .         230 

"      of  Jalapa 

. 

19,837 

22,867 

.      .      3,030 

1826 

Guanajuato    . 

. 

165,896 

179,288 

.      .    13,392 

1834 

Chihuahua 

. 

75,303 

69,879 

5,424 

1838 

Tamaulipas   . 

. 

49,235 

45,460 

3,775 

1838 

Aguas  calientes. 

. 

33,661 

36,032 

.      .      2,371 

1831 

Jalisco. — See  following 

table. 

1838 

Zacatecas.    "         " 

i( 

1821 

Tamaulipas   . 

. 

34,356 

33,428 

928 

1833 

New  Mexico 

• 

31,012 

3. 

26,164 

Death 

4,848 

Birth 

5.             Excess. 

"3 

9) 

"3 

e 

,2 

a 

1    1  1 

S 

^ 

S 

1829  San  Luis  Potosi— first 

six  months    . 

1830  Jalisco — whole  year 
1837    Zacatecas — 18  mo's. 
1834 '  State  of  Mexico,  ex- 
cept 2  prefectures 

1830    Guanajuato whole 

year 


4,882     5,1.59     2,029      1,885         421 
14,307    13,905    13,194    11,972  820 

10,935    11,006     6,376     6,495     48 


18,410    18,804    cholera  this  year. 

14,699    14,2.52     7,235     7,511  276 

It  may,  generally,  be  said  that  the  excess  of  one  sex  over  the 
other  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  latitude  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
that,  as  we  advance  from  the  equator,  the  excess  of  females  over 

1  The  cholera  ravaged  Mexico  this  year,  and  consequently  it  would  be  unfair  to 
use  the  deaths  as  a  basis  of  calculation  at  that  period. 


RELATIVE   POPULATION  IN  HOT  AND   COLD  DISTRICTS. 


47 


males  decreases,  until  the  reverse  occurs  as  the  degrees  of  latitude 
augment.  We  must,  however,  except  from  this  rule  the  depart- 
ment or  state  of  Tamaulipas,  in  which  the  constancy  with  which 
nature  sustains  the  excess  of  males,  is  somewhat  extraordinary. 
The  most  ancient  document  possessed  upon  the  subject,  relative  to 
this  State,  is  of  the  year  1793,  and  from  this  we  discover  that,  from 
that  year  until  1807,  124  more  males  than  females  were  born  there- 
in, and  that  30  more  females  than  men  died  during  the  period — 
More  females  than  males  are  born     More  males  than  females  are  born 


in  the  following 

States, 

in  the  or- 

in  the  following  States,  accord- 

der in  which  they  are 

placed : 

ing  to  the  order  in  which  they 

are  placed : 

1.  Vera  Cruz— 

-greatest  number. 

1.  Alta  California — greatest  No. 

2.  Oajaca. 

2.  New  Mexico. 

3.  Puebla. 

3.  Sonora. 

4.  Michoacan. 

4.  Chihuahua. 

5.  Guanajuato. 

5.  Coahuila. 

(j.  Jalisco. 

6.  New  Leon.* 

See  Boletin  No.  1,  del  Instituto  Nacional  de  Geografia  y   Estadistica,  Mejico, 


1839. 


INDIANS   OF  THE  TIERRA  CALIENTE. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Agriculture  — Agricultural  Products 


AGRICULTURE DRY  AND  RAINY  SEASONS.  IRRIGATION YIELD 

OF    CORN    LANDS.  COLONIAL    RESTRICTIONS. COLONIAL    DE- 
PENDENCE   BAD     INTERCOMMUNICATION ARRIEROS. CORN 

LANDS  DIFFERENT    KINDS     OF     CORN    IN    MEXICO MODE    OF 

CULTIVATION PRODUCTION VARIOUS    USES     OF    CORN.  BA- 
NANA  MAINOC RICE. THE  OLIVE  VINE CHILE  PEPPER 

TOMATO FRIJOL MAGUEY. MAGUEY    ESTATES.  MAK 

ING    PULQUE.  ALOES  CACTI. 

Sun,  seasons,  temperature,  soils  and  moisture  are  the  chief  ele- 
ments of  agricultural  success  or  failure,  according  as  they  are  bene- 
ficially harmonized  or  unfortunately  disunited.  In  our  geological 
and  geographical  descriptions  we  have  already  indicated  the  rapid 
changes  of  temperature  in  Mexico  experienced  by  rising  gradually 
from  the  sea  shore  to  the  summit  of  the  table  land,  and  passing 
through  the  tierras  calienteSy  templadas  and  jT-ias.  This  is  the 
origin  of  the  variety  of  Mexican  productions  and  the  reason  why 
the  pine  and  the  palm  are  encountered  upon  the  same  parallel  of 
latitude ;  but  ihe  fertility  of  Mexico  is  very  much  governed  by  the 
moisture  with  which  it  is  annually  favored,  and  for  which  it  is 
obliged  to  rely  chiefly  on  the  clouds.  The  Mexicans  are  not  ac- 
customed to  separate  the  year  as  we  do  into  the  four  seasons  of 
spring,  summer,  autumn  and  winter,  for  the  variation  of  tempera- 
ture scarcely  authorizes  such  marked  distinctions  of  climate  ;  yet 
they  divide  the  twelve  months  into  two  grand  divisions  of  El  Es- 
tio  —  or  the  dry  season,  and  La  Estacion  de  las  aguas,  or  the  rainy 
season.  The  latter  commences  about  May  and  lasts  usually  four 
months,  whilst  the  dry  season  comprises  the  remainder  of  the  year. 

The  curving  shores  of  Mexico  along  the  gulf  and  interior  high- 
lands gather  and  hem  in  an  immense  body  of  vapor,  which  is  car- 
ried on  by  the  trade  winds  and  condensed  against  the  cold  and  lofty 
inland  mountain  peaks  which  rise  above  the  limit  of  perpetual  con- 
gealation.  This  occurs  during  the  dry  season  whilst  the  sun  is  at 
the  south.  But  when  the  power  of  that  luminary  increases  as  it 
advances  northward,  and  until  it  has  long  turned  back  again  on  its 
southern  course,  these  vapors  are  dissolved  by  the  hot  intertropical 
air  and  descend,  almost  daily,  in  fertilizing  showers;     The  forma 


GROUP    OF    PLANTS. 


IRRIGATION YIELD    OF    CORN    LANDS.  49 

tion  of  rain  clouds  and  the  precipitation  of  their  moisture  usually 
begin  on  the  coast  near  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  course  of  the  rain 
storms  advances  from  east  to  west,  inundating  the  tierra  caliente 
along  the  eastern  coast  fifteen  or  twenty  days  before  the  table  lands 
are  moistened.  There  have  been  seasons  in  which  it  did  not  begin 
to  rain  until  a  month  or  two  after  the  usual  period.  In  1802  such 
an  event  occurred  ;  and,  again  in  1826,  the  vapors  did  not  begin  to 
form  and  descend  until  the  end  of  July,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  corn  was  totally  lost.  If  the  rains  are  withheld  beyond  the 
middle  of  June,  all  the  cereal  products  are  either  destroyed  or  suffer 
greatly  from  the  drought.  The  power  of  the  sun,  by  that  time, 
becomes  so  great  that  the  ground  is  scorched  and  the  air  filled  with 
clouds  of  dust  which  seem  to  gather  and  concentrate  the  blazing 
"ays,  until  the  falling  particles  surround  or  fall  upon  the  traveller 
over  the  plains  as  if  he  were  passing  through  a  shower  of  heated 
cinders.  The  heat,  and  the  masses  of  burning  dust,  are  almost 
overpowering  not  only  to  vegetable  but  almost  to  animal  life. 

The  agricultural  prosperity  of  Mexico,  accordingly,  depends 
either  largely  upon  the  relative  duration  of  these  two  seasons,  or 
on  the  power  of  the  landed  proprietors  to  supply  the  loss  of  water 
from  the  clouds,  by  irrigation  derived  from  the  rivers  or  slender 
streams  that  meander  through  the  interior  of  Mexico.  Seldom, 
indeed,  is  the  Mexican  planter  or  farmer  obliged  to  complain  of 
too  much  moisture.  Between  the  parallels  of  24°  and  30°  the 
rains  are  of  shorter  duration,  and  the  intervals  between  the  showers 
greater.  But,  fortunately,  beyond  the  26th°,  a  copious  supply  of 
snow,  during  the  winter,  compensates  for  the  want  of  rain  at  the 
regular  season.  Irrigation,  therefore,  is  universally  resorted  to, 
wherever  there  is  an  adequate  supply  of  water,  and  large  sums  are 
expended  by  the  possessors  of  the  principal  estates,  in  the  con- 
struction of  acequiasj  or  canals;  presas,  dams  or  reservoirs;  and 
noriasi  or  water  wheels,  by  which  the  refreshing  element  is  forced 
up  and  distributed  over  the  thirsty  fields.    ' 

Such  is  a  brief  review  and  summary  of  the  soil  and  seasons  of 
Mexico.  The  average  annual  yield  of  the  corn  lands  throughout 
Mexico  is  estimated  at  twenty-five  bushels  for  one.  In  portions  of 
the  country,  during  favorable  years,  and  where  the  irrigation  is 
good,  from  sixty  to  eighty  bushels  for  one  have  been  produced.  At 
Cholula,  near  Puebla,  the  increase  is  stated  at  forty  for  one,  while 
at  Zelaya,  Salamanca,  and  Santiago,  further  north,  from  thirty-five 
to  forty  are  produced   on  an  average  of  years.     In  the  valley  of 

G 


60  COLONIAL    RESTRICTIONS. 

Mexico,  proper,  the  yield  is  from  eighteen  to  twenty ;  and  even  in 
the  old  possessions  of  California,  it  is  set  down  at  from  fifteen  to 
seventeen.  The  best  writers  consider,  however,  that  notwithstand- 
ing the  extraordinary  fertility  of  their  soil,  the  Mexicans  do  not 
produce  in  ratio  of  quantity,  superior  crops  to  the  best  agricultural 
portions  of  the  United  States. 

The  agricultural  advantages  of  New  Spain  were  early  pointed  out 
by  some  of  the  colonial  authorities  to  the  Spanish  Home  govern- 
ment; but  the  very  fact  of  their  existence  seems  to  have  alarmed  the 
Court  and  to  have  originated  those  restrictive  laws  which,  as  we  have 
shown  in  our  historical  narrative,  so  long  ensured  the  dependence  of 
the  colony.  The  King,  the  Cabinets  and  the  Council  of  the  Indies 
united  in  believing  that  if  the  internal  resources  of  the  nation  were 
developed,  fostered,  and  placed  upon  a  firm  basis,  the  political  as 
well  as  the  industrial  independence  of  America  might  naturally  en- 
sue ;  and  accordingly,  these  authorities  resolved  at  once  to  adopt 
the  narrow  system  of  restrictions  which  retained  the  essentially 
productive  power  in  the  hands  of  Spain.  Zumarraga,  the  first 
bishop  and  second  archbishop  of  Mexico,  addressed  urgent  letters 
to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  exhibiting  the  agricultural  value  of  the 
country,  and  solicited  laborers,  plants,  seeds,  catUe,  and  all  the 
usual  means  for  the  development  of  Mexican  resources.  The  Ban- 
dos  published  in  the  year  1524,  by  Cortez,  which  are  yet  preserved 
in  the  Hospital  of  Jesus,  in  the  capital,  contain  wise  decrees  for 
the  encouragement  of  industry,  and  prove  that  the  military  life  of 
the  Conqueror  had  not  made  him  forgetful  of  his  early  agricultural 
labors  in  the  West  Indies  when  he  first  emigrated  from  Spain. 
But  the  policy  of  Spain  was  constantly  declared  to  be  adverse  to 
this  wholesome  and  reasonable  encouragement.  When  Luis  de 
Velasco,  the  second  of  that  name  who  was  viceroy  in  New  Spain, 
passed  thence  to  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru,  he  was  instructed  by  the 
King  and  Council  of  the  Indies  to  be  careful  not  to  "  foster  mauuL- 
factures,  nor  to  allow  the  cultivation  of  vines,  inasmuch  as  there 
was  already  ample  provision  of  these  things  and  the  commerce  of 
the  kingdom  should  not  be  impaired  by  such  colonial  products." 
At  the  same  epoch,  his  successor  in  Mexico,  the  Conde  de  Mon- 
terey, was  also  required  to  be  equally  vigilant  and  restrictive  in  the 
region  confided  to  his  government.  These  orders,  however,  were 
not  always  faithfully  complied  with  throughout  such  extended  and 
sparse  jurisdictions  as  those  of  Mexico  or  Peru ;  and  accordingly 
in  1610,  through  the  Marques  de  Montesclaros,  who  replaced  the 


COLONIAL    DEPENDENCE BAD    INTERCOMMUNICATION.         51 

Conde  de  Monterey  in  those  colonies,  the  royal  prohibitions  were 
repeated,  with  the  addition  of  the  following  emphatic  language  :  — 
"  Inasmuch  as  you  understand  perfectly^  how  much  the  observance 
of  these  rules  is  necessary  for  the  dependence  of  the  colonies  upon  fr 
^e  parent  state,  we  charge  and  command  you  to  see  to  their  faithful 
execution."  Wine  and  oil,  two  of  the  most  important  products  of 
Spain,  and  two  of  the  absolute  necessaries  of  a  Spaniard's  life, 
wherever  he  may  happen  to  live,  where  thus  protected  from  com- 
petition, and  formed  the  means  of  preserving  the  colonial  vassal- 
age. Nothing  was  left  to  the  New  World,  therefore,  either  to  manu- 
facture extensively,  or  to  cultivate,  except  some  of  the  coarser 
cotton  cloths,  for  ordinary  garments,  or  a  sufficiency  of  the  cerealia 
for  domestic  consumption.  It  was  necessary  to  preserve  an  equili- 
brium or  a  reasonable  ratio  between  the  sujiply  of  food  and  the  pro- 
duction of  the  mines ;  and  thus  the  common  agricultural  and  horti- 
cultural home  markets  for  the  necessaries  of  life  were  alone  left 
unencumbered  for  the  Mexicans. 

We  are  not  aware  that  Spain  encouraged,  more  than  was  abso- 
lutely demanded  for  political  ends,  a  system  of  internal  improve- 
ment by  national  roads,  with  lateral  branches  thridding  and  binding 
together  all  parts  of  the  country.  Highways  were  opened  and 
horses  and  mules  imported.  But  these  were  only  suitable  for  the 
internal  transportation  of  the  country  ;  and,  even  to  the  present 
day,  the  whole  of  Mexico  is  traversed  by  miserable  roads,  whose 
channels  are  often  cut  up  into  deep  ravines  by  the  unceasing  attri- 
tion of  caravans.  The  stubborn  but  useful  mules,  moving  about 
the  country  in  large  bodies,  under  the  guidance  of  Arrieros,  follow 
each  other  in  single  file  over  the  same  path  for  centuries,  and  there 
is  scarcely  a  highway  in  Mexico  that  is  not  worn  by  their  footsteps 
to  the  depth  of  several  feet.  Bad  roads,  royal  re_sJrictions,  and  the 
want  of  transportation  except  by  mules,  all  combined  to  impede 
rural  industry,  waste  the  people's  time,  destroy  internal  intercourse, 
and  to  force  the  consumption  of  agricultural  products  either  upon 
the  spot  where  they  grew  or  in  its  immediate  neighborhood.  The 
independence  of  Mexico  since  1824,  has  of  course  relieved  the 
nation  from  the  foreign  restrictions  upon  her  commerce ;  but  the 
agricultural  habits  of  the  people  were  not  to  be  changed  by  a  con- 
stitution or  industrial  laws.  Improved  roads  and  improved  modes 
of  transportation  have  scarcely  been  attempted  by  the  modern  re- 
publicans. Constant  revolutions  have  destroyed  concert  of  action 
among  the  people  in  the  different  states  through  which  the  new 
highways  would  pass,  at  the  same  time  that  they  have  impaired 


52 


ARRIKROS  CORN    LANDS. 


the  unity  of  system  or  policy  upon  ^vhich  the  national  govcrnincnf 
might  have  acted  for  the  general  improvement  of  internal  communi- 
cation or  development  of  agricultural  resources.  Some  of  the  best 
citizens  have  written  and  labored  in  behalf  of  national  industry  in 
all  its  usual  or  possible  manifestations;  but  we  fear  that  many  years 
of  profound  peace  must  be  ensured  to  Mexico  before  the  farmer 
will  be  able  to  share  in  the  blessings  of  commerce  by  means  of 
exportation. 


ARRIEROS   AND  MULES. 


The  great  corn  lands  of  Mexico  are  those  of  Puebla ;  —  the 
/^'  Bajio,  which  comprises  portions  of  the  state  of  Guanajuato,  Quere- 
tero,  Valladolid,  Zacatecas,  and  Guadalajara,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Rio  Santiago  ;  —  the  valley  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of  Mexico  ;  — 
the  valley  of  Poanas,  in  Durango  ;  —  and  it  is  calculated  that  the 
cleared  ground  in  these  districts  is  capable  of  producing  cerealia 
for  a  population  five  times  greater  than  that  of  Mexico  at  present. 
Corn,  in  the  states  of  Mexico  and  Puebla  is  worth  two  dollars  the 
fanega  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  ;  in  Oajaca  about  one  dol- 
lar for  the  same  quantity.     Its  value  is  every  where  irregular,  and 


DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF   CORN  IN  MEXICO.  53 

no  general  tariff  of  prices  can  be  assigned  to  Mexican  breadstuffs 
until  some  great  national  market  shall  be  established  or  Mexico 
becomes  an  exporting  country.  Neighborhoods,  at  present  es- 
tablish prices. 

Maize  or  corn,  is  a  gift  from  the  New  World  to  the  Old,  and 
is  unquestionably  the  favorite  food  of  the  great  mass  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  our  continent.  In  Mexico,  every  household  is  furnished 
with  it  abundantly,  and  all  classes  use  it  habitually. 

Although  this  plant  is  a  native  of  America  it  is  never  found 
growing  wild  in  the  republic.  Single  stocks  may  be  occasionally 
seen  in  remote  or  uninhabited  districts,  but  they  are  rarely  met, 
and,  in  all  likelihood,  have  been  sown  by  the  flocks  of  robber  birds 
who  ravage  the  Mexican  milpas  or  corn  fields  during  the  ripening 
season. 

The  best  cultivated  varieties  in  Mexico,  are  : 

1st.  Maiz  de  padus ;  with  small  ears,  of  eight  rows,  and  the  most    ' 
unimportant  of  all  the  varieties  raised  in  the  country. 

2d.  Maiz  manchado,   or  chiniesco;    a  productive    species  with  ■ 
white,  yellow  and  red  grains  ;  —  sometimes  also  entirely  blue,  in 
which  case,  it  is  called  pinto. 

3(1.  Maiz  bianco;  a  very  productive  kind,  yielding  a  fine  sweet  i 
meal. 

4th.  .^[aiz  amarillo;  this  is  sub-divided  into:  —  1st,  maiz  ama- 
rillo  grueso,  which  is  very  generally  cultivated  and  rarely  yields 
less  than  two  or  tliree  ears  each,  with  from  three  to  six  hundred 
kernels  or  grains.  2d,  maiz  amarillo  pequeno,  is  smaller  and  less 
stout ;  but  in  a  fruitful  soil  its  yield  weighs  from  ten  to  fifteen  hun- 
dred weight,  more  than  the  grueso. 

5th.  Maiz  cuarentino;    or   quarentine   corn;    better    known    in    i 
Mexico   under  the  name  of  maiz  tremes{  or,  olote  Colorado,  which 
ripens  quickly  and  may  be  planted  in  the  coldest  parts  of  Mexico. 

Gth.  Maiz  tardio,  or,  de  riego;  the   most  productive  of  all  va-  j 
neties,  and  that  which  is  cultivated  around  the  city  of  Mexico,  and 
in  many  moist  regions.     It  sometimes  yields  five  hundred  per  cent, 
on  the  quantity  planted. 

Haize,  succeeds  best  in  Mexico  in  moist  and  warm  climates; 
but  it  has  the  great  advantage  over  the  other  cereal  grains  that  it 
jaaj-  be  as  successfully  cultivated  in  this  country  in  the  tierras  calien- 
l£S,  as  in  the  tierras  frias.  Its  highest  limits  here  are  from  two  to 
eight  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  consequently 
the  time  required  for  ripening  is  different  at  different  elevations. 
It  varies  from  seven  months  to  six  weeks. 


54  MODE    OF    CULTIVATION. 

The  diseases  which  sometimes  affect  or  destroy  this  vegetable  in 
Mexico,  as  well  the  animals  that  assail  it,  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows  : 

1.  La  requttte,  a  wasting  blight  which  affects  the  maize  where  it 
is  sown  upon  poor  soil  and  is  subjected  to  damp,  cold  weather 
soon  after  planting. 

2.  El  carbon  —  a  vegetable  fungus  growth,  resembling  carbon  or 
coal,  which  appears  in  the  ears  and  destroys  them.  This  abortion 
in  the  fruit  is  believed  to  be  produced  by  an  insect. 

3.  El  hanjo  —  a  s])ecies  of  xiredo,  which  forms  itself  in  the  ear 
and  ruins  it.     The  disease  is  generally  known  as  los  Cuervos. 

The  animals  and  birds  that  attack  corn  are: 

1.  A  sort  of  mole  —  talpa  —  which  umltTiniru's  the  fields  and 
destroy  the  young  plants. 

I'  2.  The  lan'a  of  melolonthn,  wliiili  not   only  seize  tiie  roots,  but 
often  destroy  the  stalks  and  ears. 

3.  Flocks  of  pilfering  birds,  with  which  the  corn-fields  are  cov- 
ered, if  they  are  not  carefully  watched  during  the  approach  of  har- 
vest. Neither  day  nor  night  are  the  ears  safe  from  the  attacks  of 
these  pilferers  ;  and,  in  order  to  protect  the  crop,  watchmen  are 
placed  on  high  stages,  overlooking  the  acres,  whence  the  traveller 
constantly  hears  their  shouts,  during  the  day,  or  the  crack  of  the 
warning  whips,  during  the  night. 

Maize  may  be  planted  in  Mexico  at  different  periods  of  the  year, 
especially  in  those  districts  in  which,  for  nine  months,  there  is  al- 
ways sufficient  moisture.  In  the  tierra  caliente,  the  roncheros,  cul- 
tivate, in  thi.«  grain,  the  best  spots  lying  near  their  dwellings.  In 
the  cooler  d  stricts  they  have  two  kinds  of  culture  —  one  by  irriga- 
tion, and  another  upon  a  dry  soil.  The  latter  mode  is  subdivided, 
by  the  Mexicans,  into  three  kinds  —  the  humido,  avenfureso,  and 
temporal. 

In  the  first  mode  of  cultivation  the  Maiz  fardio,  is  sown,  and  it 
is  usually  found  to  be  the  most  productive.  A  seeding  made  in  a 
soil  capable  of  preserving  the  winter's  moisture  and  the  humidity 
of  the  first  spring  rains,  is  called  siembra  de  aventureso.  In  the 
temporal,  a  quickly  ripening  species  of  corn  is  planted  —  such  as 
the  maiz  cuarentino  —  which  may  be  cultivated  either  before  or 
during  the  rainy  season,  from  May  to  November. 

It  is  rare  that  the  common  Mexican  ranchero  is  sufl^ciently  pro- 
vident to  select  the  soil  for  his  corn  crop,  with  due  care ;  and  ac- 
cordingly we  find  that  maize  is  often  planted  in  the  midst  of  fields 
abounding  in  stiff"  ungenial  clay. 


PRODUCTION VARIOUS  USES  OF  CORN.  55 

The  present  corn  production  of  Mexico  is  not  accurately  deter- 
mined, but  it  is  estimated  that  it  is  the  chief  subsistence  of  at  least 
five  millions  of  persons,  whilst  it  supplies  the  only  fodder  for  all 
kinds  of  domestic  animals.  Its  average  product  must  therefore  be 
not  far  from  at  least  twenty  millions  of  bushels. 

Corn  is  a  varied  article  of  diet  among  all  classes.  The  ancient 
Mexicans  made  a  species  of  sugar  from  the  juice  of  the  stalk  — 
while  the  modern  Mexicans  brew  from  it  a  fermented  drink,  called 
j)ulque  de  maiz,  or  omayo.  The  extremely  saccharine  pith  of  this 
plant  is  often  devoured  raw  by  the  Indians,  and  it  has  been  also 
frequently  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brandy.  The  unripe  ears  are 
boiled  or  baked,  and  sold  in  the  towns  and  villages  to  the  poorer 
classes  formino-  their  sole  subsistence  ;  while  the  leaves  and  stems 
afford  a  capital  food  for  beasts.  Sometimes  these  portions  of  the 
plant  are  devoted  to  architectural  purposes,  and  a  neat  rustic  hut  is 
built  of  the  cornlike  stalks,  interwoven  and  thatched  with  their 
broad  and  graceful  leaves. 

A  kind  of  beer,  called  chicha,  is  sometimes  prepared  from  the 
kernels  of  ripened  maize,  and  is  found,  by  natives  and  strangers,  to 
be  an  agreeable  as  well  as  wholesome  beverage.  When  the  meal 
is  boiled  in  water,  and  mixed  with  some  farinacious  roots,  a  favorite 
and  exceedingly  grateful  gruel,  known  as  atole,  is  formed  by  the 
process.  In  the  tierra  caliente,  the  kernels  are  often  roasted  and 
ground  into  j)inok  ;  —  hni  the  most  ordinary  consumption  of  this 
precious  vegetable  is  in  the  tortillas,  for  which  JVIexicor  is  so  cele- 
brated, and  in  the  preparation  of  which  it  is  estimated  that  more 
than  two  hundred  thousand  females,  in  the  republic,  spend  four  or 
five  hours  of  every  day.  In  order  to  make  tortillas,  the  grains  of 
corn  are  soaked  in  water,  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  lime  has 
been  added,  until  they  are  relieved  of  their  shells.  The  pure  and 
softened  pulp  is  then  laid  on  a  flat  stone  or  .metate,  one  end  of 
which  is  slightly  raised  from  the  ground.  A  Mexican  woman 
kneels  in  the  rear  of  the  metate,  and  with  another  round  stone,  rolls, 
macerates,  and  amalgamates  the  crushed  corn  until  it  is  formed  into 
a  rich  succulent  paste.  Hard  by,  a  thin  metallic  griddle  is  set  over 
ignited  coals,  which  is  constantly  supplied  by  another  female,  who 
pats  the  dough  into  extremely  thin  and  delicate  cakes.  They  are 
eaten  hot  from  the  griddle,  but,  even  when  carefully  prepared,  are 
deemed  insipid  and  unsavorj'  by  foreigners.  ,   ^  ,    ,     ,      i 

Nor  are  these  the  only  purposes  to  which  this  delightful  plant  and 
its  offal  are  devoted  by  the  Mexicans.  They  have  discovered,  with- 
in a  few  years,  that  a  capital  paper,  for  ordinary  purposes,  can  be 


56  BANANA MAIZE RICE. 

made  of  its  leaves ;  and  Ihey  have  long  ago  used  them  as  wrap- 
pers for  the  cigarritos,  whicli  no  loyal  native  fails  to  indulge  in 
hourly. 

Man  and  beast  —  dwellings,  food,  paper,  architecture,  and  ci- 
gars —  are  thus,  in  Mexico,  all  indebted  to  Indian  corn  as  one  of 
the  greatest  elements  of  comfort,  sustenance,  utility  and  luxury. 

The  extraordinarily  productive  Banana  is  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  tierra  caliente  what  maize  is  to  those  who  dwell  in  the  loftier 
and  cooler  regions  of  the  tabic  land.  An  acre  of  wlicat  will  su])j)ly 
the  wants  of  three  men,  but  an  acre  of  Bananas,  or  plantains,  says 
Humboldt,  will  support  fifty. 

The  Mainoc,  cassava  bread,  jatropha  vuinihot,  the  Juca  or 
Yuca,  as  it  is  known  in  the  West  India  islands,  is  peculiar  to  the 
tierra  caliente,  but  is  more  used  on  the  western  than  eastern  coasts 
of  Mexico.  A  fine  flour  is  made  df  the  root,  which  in  its  raw  state 
is  poisonous.  When  (ltj)ii\i(i  of  all  its  juice  by  j)ressure,  the 
residuum  is  a  farinacious  pulj),  forming  a  j)leasant  food  whose  con- 
sumption, however,  is  not  likely  to  increase  in  Mexico. 

The  cultivation  of  Rice  is  not  extensive.  On  the  east  coast 
between  Alvarado  and  Guasacualco,  and  on  the  western  between 
Jamiltepic  and  Huatuico,  it  has  been  grown  in  some  few  spots  ;  but 
it  does  not  appear  to  please  the  popular  taste  sufficiently,  ever  to 
enter  largely  into  the  list  of  national  productions  either  for  export 
or  home  consumption. 

The  Olive  was  one  of  the  banned  and  forbidden  products  of 
the  Spanish  colonies  ;  but  notwithstanding  the  inhibitions  we  have 
already  cited  in  this  section,  the  tree  was  planted  in  various  por- 
tions of  the  country  both  previous  to  the  revolution,  and  during 
intervals  of  repose  whilst  the  war  of  liberation  was  waging.  The 
archbishop  of  Mexico  was  one  of  the  first  to  cultivate  a  plantation 
of  it  at  Tacubaya  near  the  capital.  At  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury, Joaquin  Gutierrez  de  los  Rios,  commenced  the  culture  at  his 
hacienda  de  Sarabia,  within  the  district  of  Salamanca,  in  Guana- 
juato, and  succeeded  admirably ;  but  his  trees  were  destroyed  en- 
tirely during  the  revolution.  At  present  some  large  plantations 
have  been  made,  in  the  same  state,  at  several  haciendas,  and,  espe- 
cially, at  that  of  Mendoza,  where  30,000  olive  trees  were  set  out, 
in  1849. 

The  Vine,  like  the  olive,  was  a  forbidden  fruit  to  Mexican  agri- 
culturists under  the  Spanish  dominion,  except  in  a  region  about 
Parras  whose  extreme  northern  remoteness  from  the  capital  perhaps 
exempted  it  from  the  general  inhibition.  -  Elsewhere,  throughout 
the  colony,  vineyards  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed  wherever  they 


58 


TOMATO 


FRIJOL 


MAGUEY. 


men  have  become  so  fond  of  the  food,  that  they  haA-e  brought  the 
bean  with  them  upon  their  return  to  the  United  States,  and  now 
supply  their  table  with  it  instead  of  hominy.  From  the  frijol,  the 
tortilla^  and  the  Chile  pepper  we  pass  to  the  great  national  liquor, 
which  requires  generally  longer  time  to  win  the  favor  of  foreigners. 

The  Maguey  —  Metl,  or  Agave  Americana,  is  a  species  of 
Ananas,  or  Aloe,  from  which  is  made  octli  or  pulque^  the  favorite 
beverage  of  the  lower  and  middle  classes  of  Mexicans,  especially 
in  the  central  parts  of  the  table  land. 

This  plant  grows  wild  in  almost  every  part  of  Mexico,  yet  the 
people  do  not  extract  a  liquid  from  it,  except  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Puebla  and  the  capital,  where  its  consumption  is  enormous. 
The  principal  plantations  are  in  the  Slates  of  Puebla,  Mexico, 
Guanajuato,  and  a  small  ])ortion  of  Valladolid.  The  districts 
most  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  their  liquor,  are  in  the  vicinity 
of  Cholula  and  the  Plains  of  Apam.  So  great  was  the  consump- 
tion of  this  favorite  national  drink,  that  the  small  municipal  tax 
upon  it,  at  the  gates  of  the  cities,  amounted,  before  the  revolution, 
to  $600,000— and,  in  the  year  1793,  to  upwards  of  $800,000. 

Pulque  is  so  little  known  in  Europe,  or  in  the  United  States, 
that  some  account  of  the  process,  by  which  it  is  made,  may  be  ac 
ceptable. 


MAKING   PULQUE. 


MAGUEY    ESTATES.  59 

"  The  Maguey,  or  aloe,  from  which  it  is  extracted,  differs  but 
little,  in  appearance,  from  those  which  abound  in  the  south  of 
Spain,  and  are  known  —  though  of  a  much  smaller  size — inEngland. 
Its  growth  is  slow,  but  when  arrived  at  maturity,  its  leaves  are 
usually  from  five  to  eight  feet  in  length,  although  some  considera- 
bly exceed  these  dimensions. 

"  In  the  Maguey  estates,  the  plants  are  arranged  in  lines,  with 
an  interval  of  three  yards  between  each.  If  the  soil  be  good,  they 
require  no  attention  on  the  part  of  the  proprietor  until  the  period  of 
flowering  arrives,  at  which  time  the  plant  first  commences  to  be 
productive.  This  period  is  very  uncertain ;  ten  years,  however, 
may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average,  for,  in  a  plantation  of  one  thousand 
aloes,  it  is  calculated  that  one  hundred  are  in  flower  every  year. 
The  Indians,  know,  by  infallible  signs,  almost  the  very  hour  at 
which  the  stem,  or  central  shoot,  destined  to  produce  the  flower,  is 
about  to  appear,  and  they  anticipate  it,  by  making  a  deep  incision 
and  extracting  the  whole  heart,  or  central  portion  of  the  stem,  as  a 
surgeon  would  take  an  arm  out  of  the  socket,  leaving  nothing  but 
the  thick  outside  rind,  thus  forming  a  natural  basin  or  well,  about 
two  feet  in  depth  and  one  and  a  half  in  diameter.  Into  this  the 
sap,  which  nature  intended  for  the  support  of  the  gigantic  central 
shoot  continually  oozes,  in  such  quantities  that  it  is  found  necessary 
to  remove  it  twice,  and  even  three  times,  during  the  day.  In  order 
to  facilitate  this  operation,  the  leaves  on  one  side  are  cut  off,  so  as 
to  admit  a  free  approach.  An  Indian  then  inserts  a  long  gourd, 
(called  acojitc,)  the  thinner  end  of  which  is  terminated  by  a  horn, 
while  at  the  opposite  extremity  a  small  square  hole  is  left,  to  which 
he  applies  his  lips,  and  extracts  the  sap  by  suction.  This  sap,  be- 
fore it  ferments,  is  called  Jlguamiel,  (honey  water,)  and  merits  the 
appellation,  as  it  is  extremely  sweet,  and  does  not  possess  that  dis- 
agreeable smell  which  is  afterwards  so  offensive. 

"  A  small  portion  of  this  aguamiel  is  transferred  from  the  plant 
to  a  building  prepared  for  the  purpose,  where  it  is  allowed  to  fer- 
ment for  ten  or  fifteen  days,  when  it  becomes  what  is  termed  Ma- 
dre  Pulque,  ( the  mother  of  Pulque,  )  which  is  distributed,  in  very 
small  quantities,  amongst  the  different  skins  or  troughs,  intended 
for  the  daily  reception  of  the  Aguamiel.  Upon  this  it  acts  as  a 
sort  of  leaven  ;  fermentation  is  excited  instantly,  and  in  twenty- 
four  hours  it  becomes  Pulque  in  the  very  best  state  for  drinking. 
The  quantity  drawn  off  each  day  is  replaced  by  a  fresh  supply  of 
Aguamiel,  so  that  the  process  may  continue  during  the  whole  year 
without  interruption,  and  is  limited  only  by  the  extent  of  the  plan- 


60  MAKING    PULQUE. 

tation.  A  good  maguey  yields  from  eight  to  fifteen  quartillos  or 
pints,  of  Aguamiel  in  a  day,  the  value  of  ^vhich  may  be  taken  at 
about  one  real,  or  twelve  and  a  half  cents  ;  —  and  this  supply  of 
sap  continues  during  two,  and  often  three  months.  The  plant, 
therefore,  when  about  to  flower,  is  worth  ten  dollars  to  the  farmer; 
although,  in  the  transfer  of  an  estate,  the  Magueyes  de  corte,  ready 
for  cutting,  are  seldom  valued,  one  with  another,  at  more  than  five. 
But,  in  this  estimate,  an  allowance  is  made  for  the  failure  of  some, 
which  is  unavoidable,  as  the  operation  of  cutting  the  heart  of  the 
plant,  if  performed  either  too  soon,  or  too  late,  is  equally  unsuc- 
cessful and  entirely  destroys  the  plant.  The  cultivation  of  the  Ma- 
guey, where  a  market  is  at  hand,  has  many  advantages,  as  it  is  a 
plant,  which,  though  it  succeeds  best  in  a  good  soil,  is  not  easily 
affected  either  by  heat  or  cold,  and  requires  little  or  no  water.  It 
is  propagated,  too,  with  great  facility;  for,  although  the  mo- 
ther plant  withers  away  as  soon  as  the  sap  is  exhausted,  it  is  re- 
placed by  a  multitude  of  suckers  from  the  old  root.  There  is  but 
one  drawback  on  its  culture,  and  that  is  the  period  that  must  elapse 
before  a  new  plantation  can  be  rendered  productive,  and  the  uncer- 
tainty with  regard  to  the  time  of  flowering,  which  varies  from  eight 
to  eighteen  years.  But  the  Maguey  grounds,  when  once  estab- 
lished, are  of  great  value,  many  producing  a  revenue  of  ten  and 
twelve  thousand  dollars  per  annum. 

"  The  natives  ascribe  to  Pulque  as  many  good  qualities  as  whis- 
key is  said  to  possess  in  Scotland.  They  call  it  stomachic,  —  a 
great  promoter  of  digestion  and  sleep,  and  an  excellent  remedy  in 
many  diseases.  It  requires  a  knowledge  of  all  these  good  quali- 
ties to  reconcile  the  stranger  to  that  smell  of  sour  milk  or  slightly 
tainted  meat,  by  which  the  young  Pulque  drinker  is  usually  dis- 
gusted ;  but  if  this  can  be  surmounted,  the  liquor  will  be  found 
both  refreshing  and  wholesome,  for  its  intoxicating  qualities  are  very- 
slight,  and  as  it  is  drunk  always  in  a  state  of  fermentation,  it  pos- 
sesses, even  in  the  hottest  weather,  an  agreeable  coolness.  It  is 
found,  too,  where  water  is  not  to  be  obtained  ;  and  even  the  most 
fastidious,  when  travelling  under  a  vertical  sun,  are  then  forced  to 
admit  its  merits. 

"It  is  only  to  be  met  with  in  'perfection  near  the  places  where  it 
is  grown  ;  as  it  is  conveyed  to  the  great  towns  in  hog-skins  on 
mules  or  asses.  During  this  tedious  process  the  disagreeable  odor 
increases  and  the  freshness  of  the  liquor  is  lost.  A  strong  sort  of 
brandy,  called  Mexical,  Mescal,  or  aguardiente,  is  likewise  prepared 
from  the  aloe,  of  which  there  is  a  great  consumption  in  the  coun- 


ALOES CACTI.  61 

try.  Nor  is  the  utility  of  the  plant  confined  to  this  ;  the  Aztecs 
prepared  from  its  leaves  the  paper  on  which  their  hieroglyphics 
were  written,  pieces  of  which,  of  various  thickness,  may  be  found 
at  the  present  day.  The  more  fibrous  parts  supply  the  country  with 
pita,  a  strong  thread  or  twine,  which  is  made  up  into  ropes  and 
used  not  only  in  the  interior,  but  on  the  western  coast  as  cordage 
for  vessels.  It  is  not  so  pliable  as  hemp,  and  is  more  hable  to  be 
affected  by  the  weather ;  but  it  is  extremely  tough  and  durable,  and 
consequently  of  very  general  utility.  The  preceding  plate  contains 
an  aloe  in  full  produce,  with  the  leaves  cut,  the  central  cup  dis- 
played, and  the  skin,  gourd,  and  scraper  used  in  extracting  the 

sap.'" 

Mexico  is  filled  with  varities  of  Aloes  and  Cacti.     A  species 

known  as  the  Organos  —  whose  tall,  erect  and  fluted  columns 
shoot  up  to  a  height  of  ten,  fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  is  used  in  many 
parts  of  the  table  land  for  fences.  Planted  in  close  rows,  its  fine 
spines  and  firm  limbs  afford  an  impervious  wall  against  intruders, 
whilst  the  tops  of  these  evergreen  and  growing  barriers  are  almost 
always  covered  with  the  most  beautiful  blossoms.  In  many  dis- 
tricts of  Mexico  these  cacti  form  one  of  the  most  picturesque  as 
well  as  useful  features  in  the  landscape. 

1  Ward's  Mexico  in  1627,  vol.  1,  p.  55. 


CHAPTER    V. 

COLONIAL    PRODUCTS. 


estates  in  the  valleys  of  cuernavaca  and  cuautla mexican 

haciendas. sugar  regions coffee its  yield. tobacco 

orizaba  chiapas,    etc. indigo cotton. manufactures 

encouraged  in  mexico. no  new  agricultural  population 

new    manufacturing    population. production   of   cotton 

vainilla jalap cacao  cochineal its   production   and 

quantity. silk  fruits  agricultural  prospects. gra- 
zing, and  not  an  agricultural  country. 

Agricultural  Products  continued.  —  Colonial  Products. 

Sugar. 

It  is  generally  admitted  tiat  the  cultivation  of  Sugar  commen- 
ced in  China.  The  cane  became  first  known,  through  Marco  Polo, 
in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century ;  and  it  was  soon  after  intro- 
duced into  Nubia,  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  ;  whence,  about  the  15th 
century,  it  reached  Europe.  It  was  first  planted  in  Sicily,  and  car- 
ried to  Spain,  Madeira,  and  the  Canary  Isles ;  and,  twenty-eight 
years  after  tlie  discovery  by  Columbus,  it  was  introduced  into  Hayti,  . 
by  Pedro  Atienza,  and  speedily  spread  over  the  West  Indies  and  "^ 
other  parts  of  America. 

The  Sugar  Cane  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  agricultural  pro- 
ducts of  Mexico,  and  we  are  convinced  from  personal  observation 
that  the  estates  in  the  tierra  caliente,  where  it  is  chiefly  raised,  are  • 
the  richest,  as  well  as  most  beautiful,  in  the  republic.  There  is 
scarcely  a  lovelier  prospect  in  Mexico  than  that  which  spreads  be- 
fore the  traveller  as  he  descends  from  the  northern  mountains  into 
the  valley  or  Cuernavaca,  which  lies  south  of  the  valley  of  Mexico, 
and  may  be  reached  easily  in  the  course  of  a  day.  On  every  side, 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  fields  of  the  freshest  verdure  are  spread 
out,  dotted  with  the  white  walls  and  towers  of  the  magnificent 
haciendas,  which  have  been  founded  in  this  valley  ever  since  the 
conquest.  Screened  from  the  cold  winds  of  the  upper  table  land 
by  the  protecting  barrier  of  mountains  which  hem  in  the  vales  of 
Mexico  and  Puebla,  the  valley  of  Cuernavaca  basks,  on  their  south- 
ern slopes  and  feet,  in  a  tropical  climate.  Winter  never  destroys 
the  foliage  in  this  sheltered  region.  Pleasant  streams  gurgle  through 
its  midst  and  afford  sufficient  supplies  for  irrigation.  On  the  plain 
the  tender  green  of  the  young  cane,  waves  in  the  sun-light  like  a 
mass  of  purest  velvet ;  whilst  the  palm  and  the  plantain  mingle  their 


ESTATES   IN  THE   VALLEYS   OF   CUERNAVACA  AND    CUAUTLA.    63 

pensile  and  massive  foliage  amid  the  densest  groves  of  oranges, 
aloes,  and  forest  trees.  The  valley  of  Cuernavaca  is  one  of  those 
picturesque  regions  which  are  so  well  calculated  to  bring  back  a 
fanciful  beholder  to  the  scenes  he  has  conjured  up  in  youth  whilst 
perusing  the  story  of  Paul  and  Virginia,  or  the  glowing  descriptions 
of  the  Arabian  Nights. 

It  is  in  this  charming  region  that  some  of  the  opulent  citizens  of 
the  republic,  have  succeeded  the  wealthy  Spaniards  in  the  princely 
domains  and  liaciendas  of  the  tierra  caliente.  In  the  neighborhood 
of  Cuernavaca  we  find  the  estates  of  Temisco,  San  Gabriel,  Trenta 
Pesos,  El  Puente,  Meacatlan,  San  Caspar,  San  Vicento  Chiconcuac, 
and  Atlajomulco.  The  valley  of  Cuautla  unites  with  that  of  Cu- 
ernavaca, on  the  east,  and  contains,  among  others,  the  prominent 
estates  of  San  Nicolas,  Atlihuyan,  San  Carlos,  Acotesalco,  Pantit- 
lan,  Cocoyoe,  Calderon,  Casasana,  Santa  Inez,  Coahuistla,  Ma- 
pastlan,  and  Tenestepango. 

In  the  state  of  Oajaca  there  are  the  fine  haciendas  of  Guendolein, 
Arragon,  Chicomastlahuaca  and  Ayotla,  besides  smaller  plantations; 
and,  in  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz  there  are  many  valuable  estates  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Orizaba  and  Cordova.  The  last  mentioned 
establishments  produce  annually  from  40,000  to  50,000  arrobas  of 
sugar ;  whilst  those  in  the  valleys  of  Cuernavaca  and  Cuautla  de 
Amilpas,  (calculated  in  all,  at  forty-eight,  in  number,)  yield  about 
800,000  arrobas  of  sugar  and  syrup  —  besides  50,000  barrels  of 
rum.  These  products,  together  with  some  indigo  and  coffee,  raised 
in  these  two  last  named  valleys,  swell  the  value  of  agriculture  in 
these  branches  to  two  millions  and  a  half  annually.  On  the  estate 
of  Guendolein,  in  Oajaca,  40,000  arrobas  of  sugar  were  yielded 
every  year,  which  sold  in  the  federal  capital  at  about  $160,000.  At 
Atlajomulco,  in  Cuernavaca,  880,000  square  yards  of  land  were 
cultivated  in  cane,  which  produced  4,600  cwt.  of  refined  sugar, 
7,800  cwt.  of  molasses,  and  300  cwt.  of  syrup.  From  the  syrup 
is  distilled  the  common  chinguerito,  or  a  superior  species  of  bev- 
erage known  as  aguardiente,  de  cana.  At  the  estate  of  Santa  Inez, 
near  Cuautla,  4,000  barrels  of  this  spirit  are  annually  distilled  and 
sold  in  Mexico  at  $32  each,  which,  with  a  deduction  of  eight  dol- 
lars for  transportion  and  duties,  will  leave  a  return  for  the  planter 
of  24  dollars  per  barrel.  In  addition  to  this  production  of  ardent 
spirits,  the  estate  produces  annually  about  40,000  loaves,  of  twenty- 
three  pounds  each,  or  920,000  pounds  of  refined  sugar ;  and  here, 
as  elsewhere  throughout  the  planting  districts,  it  is  calculated  that 
the  molasses,  syrup,  and  in  some  places,  the  aguardiente,  pay  all 


64  MEXICAN    HACIENDAS. 

the  expenses  of  the  estate.  The  chief  difficulty  encountered  by 
the  proprietors,  and  their  administradors,  is  in  the  worthlessness  of 
the  Indian  laborers,  whose  character  as  agriculturists  we  have 
noticed  in  the  section  of  this  work  treating  of  the  classes  of  Mexi- 
can society.  Three  hundred  hands  are  employed  at  the  hacienda, 
who  are  paid  a  per  diem  of  two  and  a  half  or  three  reals,  according 
to  their  qualifications  or  work. 

The  hacienda  of  Temisco,  in  the  valley  of  Cuernavaca,  is  one  of 
the  oldest  establishments  in  the  republic,  and,  within  a  few  years, 
has  passed  into  the  possession  of  its  present  owners  for  the  sum  of 
$300,000.  The  extensive  buildings,  consisting  of  a  commodious 
dwelling,  constructed  in  the  old  Spanish  style,  and  a  large  chapel, 
were  erected  soon  after  the  conquest.  The  domain  extends  over 
eleven  leagues  of  land  in  length,  and  three  in  width.  Two  hundred 
and  fifty  laborers  produce  yearly  about  fifty  thousand  loaves  of  su- 
gar, of  an  average  weight  of  23  pounds.  The  annual  expenses  of 
the  farming  and  management  amount  to  thirty  thousand  dollars, 
which  are  repaid  by  the  molasses,  syrup,  and  spirits,  as  at  Santa 
Inez,  while,  in  addition  to  the  crop,  about  four  thousand  cattle  are 
raised  on  the  premises.  On  all  these  large  estates  a  store  is  kept 
by  the  owner,  at  which  nearly  the  whole  amount  of  the  Indian  la- 
borer's wages  is  received  back  in  the  course  of  the  year.  The  plan- 
ters, in  many  parts  of  the  country,  are  no  longer  contented  with  the 
old  system  of  extracting  and  preparing  sugar ;  but,  notwithstand- 
ing the  enormous  cost  of  transporting  such  large  masses  of  heavy 
machinery,  they  have  introduced  all  the  modern  im{>roved  engines 
used  in  the  United  States  and  the  West  Indies.  The  profits  must 
be  large  that  will  warrant  so  extravagant  an  expenditure.  The 
great  haciendas  disburse,  in  wages  and  other  current  charges,  from 
800  to  1,200  dollars  weekly.  The  establishment  of  a  Trapiche,  or 
all  the  works  required  for  a  sugar  estate,  is  so  costly  an  enterprise, 
that  it  is  not  likely  the  cultivation  of  the  article  will  become  greatly 
extended  by  the  opening  of  new  estates  in  the  most  productive  re- 
gions. Labor,  as  well  as  engines,  will  be  required  for  this  purpose, 
and  it  is  quite  improbable  that  the  few  indolent  Indians  in  the 
neighborhood  will  be  prevailed  on  to  abandon  their  life  of  laziness 
for  the  toils  of  a  sugar  plantation.  Besides  this,  the  present  pro- 
duction fully  supplies  the  home  market,  and  although  the  revenues 
and  profits  are  extraordinarily  tempting,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
Mexicans  are  sufficiently  enterprising  in  agriculture  to  adventure 
such  enormous  sums  as  are  necessarily  expended  before  a  single 
cane  is  planted  or  a  pound  of  sugar  manufactured.     As  long  as  the 


iadiHisiiliilillffit^^ 


*^ 


SUGAR  REGIONS COFFEE.  65 

rate  of  interest  is  high,  the  roads  bad,  transportation  costly  and 
unchanged,  and  the  condition  of  the  country  unsettled,  these  vast 
and  valuable  rural  districts  will,  in  all  likelihood,  remain  untenanted 
and  unwrought. 

Baron  Humboldt,  whose  analytical  mind  always  strives  to  clas- 
sify, systematize  and  tabularize  his  investigations,  has  endeavored 
to  ascertain  and  limit  the  maximum  height  at  which  the  cane  may 
be  cultivated ;  but  it  is  probably  true  that  all  such  attempts,  are  al- 
together visionary,  in  a  country  of  great  inequalities  of  elevation, 
shelter  and  exposure.  Many  local  causes,  altogether  independent 
of  relative  elevation  may  produce  the  degree  of  heat  requisite  to 
bring  cane  to  perfection,  yet  it  is  generally  conceded  that  the  pro- 
duce of  a  plantation  in  the  table  land  would  not  equal  that  of  an 
estate  near  the  coast.  The  valley  of  Cuautla,  for  instance,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  lofty  peak  of  Popocatepetl,  against 
whose  snows  the  fresh  verdure  of  the  cane,  and  the  graceful 
branches  of  the  palm  are  constantly  relieved'  In  an  hour  or  two 
after  leaving  the  plantation  of  Santa  Inez,  the  traveller  who  passes 
thence  towards  the  valley  of  INIexico,  finds  himself  obliged  to  put 
on  his  cloak  or  serape^  after  having  suffered  from  tropical  heat 
during  the  preceding  day.  It  might  reasonably  be  supposed  that 
the  vicinity  of  such  immense  masses  of  ice  and  snow  would  na- 
turally affect  the  temperature  of  the  adjacent  valley;  but  the  frosty 
peak  of  Popocatepetl  only  serves  to  condense  the  vapors  that  drift 
inland  from  the  sea  and  to  set  them  free  over  the  low  and  warm 
valleys  which  border  its  southern  base,  whilst  its  broad  shoulders 
protect  the  plains  from  the  cold  blasts  of  the  north  wind. 

Coffee. 

The  soil  of  Mexico  has  been  found  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of 
coffee  as  well  as  sugar ;  but  under  the  old  Spanish  dominion  it 
never  formed  one  of  the  articles  of  export,  although  it  did  not  in- 
terfere with  the  productions  of  the  mother  country.  In  1818  and 
'19  extensive  plantations  were  commenced  near  Orizaba  and  Cor- 
dova, to  which  additions  have  since  been  frequently  made.  The 
plant  was  likewise  introduced  into  the  valleys  of  Cuernavaca  and 
Cuautla  by  Antonio  Velasco  and  the  administrador  of  the  estates  of 
the  Duke  of  Monteleonc.  The  large  hacienda  of  Atlajomulco,  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Cuernavaca  still  pertains  to  the  de- 
scendants of  Cortez ;  and  here  the  experiment  of  coffee  culture  has 
been  long  and  successfully  tried.  The  average  produce  of  each 
I 


!56  ITS    YIELD TOBACCO ORIZABA CHIAPAS,    ETC. 

plant  is  estimated  at  about  two  and  a  half  pounds  throughout  all 
parts  of  the  republic  where  the  berry  is  cultivated;  though  there  are 
-districts  of  Mexico  in  which  it  is  said  that  three  or  four  pounds  are 
yielded.  This  probably  depends  very  much  on  the  size,  age,  or 
quality  of  the  tree.  Mr.  Ward  states  that  he  knew  of  a  single  tree, 
in  the  garden  of  Don  Pablo  de  la  Llave,  at  Cordova,  which  pro- 
duced twenty-eight  pounds  !  The  slope  of  the  eastern  Cordillera  is 
supposed  to  be  best  calculated  for  coffee  estates,  and  it  is  believed 
that  Yucatan  and  Tabasco  will  ultimately,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, become  the  centres  of  a  lucrative  trade  in  this  article,  if  the 
Indian  population  can  ever  be  trained  to  agricultural  labors,  or  made 
productively  industrious  in  a  land  where  the  wants  of  nature  are  so 
few  and  so  easily  supplied.  The  plantations  in  the  interior  must 
long  be  excluded  from  foreign  markets  for  the  same  reason  that  we 
have  assigned  in  regard  to  sugar.  Roads  and  improved  transpor- 
tation are  the  fundamental  and  primary  elements  of  commercial 
civilization,  and  until  these  are  obtained  permanently,  Mexico  must 
look  chiefly  to  her  domestic  market  for  agricultural  recompense. 

Tobacco. 

In  a  country  in  which  all  the  men,  and  nearly  all  the  women  are 
habitual  and  even  constant  smokers,  tobacco,  must  necessarily  be 
an  article  of  national  importance.  So  valuable  is  its  production 
that  the  government  has  continued  to  maintain  the  monopoly  of  its 
sale,  and,  previous  to  the  revolution,  managed  to  obtain  an  annual 
clear  revenue  of  from  one  to  two  millions  and  a  half  of  dollars,  with 
a  gross  income,  occasionally,  of  over  seven  millions  and  a  half. 
In  the  cigar  factories  of  Oajaca  five  millions  of  packets  of  paper 
cigar ritos  of  thirty  in  each  were  prepared,  besides  sixty  thousand 
packets  each  containing  seven  ^wros  or  ordinary  cigars. 

Tobacco  grows  well  in  a  small  district  near  Orizaba  and  Cor- 
dova, but  the  best  article  produced  in  the  republic,  comes  from 
Simojovel  in  the  state  of  Chiapas  and  from  some  districts  of  Oajaca. 
In  Yucatan  and  Tabasco,  the  plant  is  also  cultivated  successfully, 
and  produces  a  mild  and  fragrant  leaf  which  is  not  included  in  the 
national  monopoly.  A  large  portion  of  the  tobacco  sold  in  the 
republic  is  contraband;  for  the  ridiculous  and  greedy  restrictions 
and  exactions  with  which  a  plant  of  such  universal  consumption  is 
surrounded,  necessarily  dispose  the  people  to  violate  laws  which 
they  feel  were  only  made  to  impair  their  rights  of  production  and 
trade  under  a  constitution  professing  to  be  free. 


flax indigo cotton hemp.  67 

Indigo. 

Indigo  was  cultivated  and  used  by  the  Mexicans  previous  to  the 
conquest.  The  plant  was  known  by  them  under  the  name  of 
Xiuhquilipitzahuac,  and  the  particles  from  which  the  dye  stuff  was 
made,  as  Mohuitli  or  Tlacohuilli.  At  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  production  of  this  article  had  already  greatly  decreased. 
The  chief  part  of  it,  required  for  dyeing  the  cotton  cloths  which 
are  generally  used  for  home  consumption  by  the  Indians  and  lower 
classes  of  Mestizos,  has  been  brought  from  Guatemala.  It  is  found 
in  Yucatan,  Chiapas  and  about  Tehuantepec  in  the  state  of  Oajaca, 
and  grows  wild  in  some  very  warm  localities  in  Tabasco.  In  this 
last  named  region  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  may  be 
profitably  cultivated,  inasmuch  as  the  indigo  plantations  of  San 
i^lvador,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Guatemala  have  been  known  to 
produce  one  million  eight  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  the  article, 
valued  at  two  millions  of  dollars. 

The  production  of  Wax,  according  to  the  Memoria  Sobre  el 
Estado  de  la  Agricultura  y  Industria,  of  Don  Lucas  Alaman  in 
1843,  is  gradually  augmenting  in  the  republic.  Attempts  have 
also  been  made  to  cultivate  Flax  and  Hemp.  The  first  of  which 
has  been  successfully  raised  by  Mariano  Aillou  in  the  neighbor- 
iiood  of  Tenancingo,  and  the  latter,  in  the  southern  districts  of  the 
state  of  Michoacan,  where  it  grows  even  spontaneously  and  is 
known  under  the  name  of  guinary.  The  product  is  very  large,  the 
extent  of  territory  covered  by  it  very  great,  —  and  the  thousands 
of  pounds  annually  raised  in  that  district,  are  made  up  into  gar- 
ments whose  quality  is  highly  approved  throughout  the  republic. 

Cotton. 

In  consequence  of  the  high  price  of  imported  goods,  owing  to 
restrictive  tariffs  as  well  as  to  the  costliness  of  transportation  a 
number  of  intelligent  persons  began  some  years  ago  to  establish 
factories  for  cottons  and  woollens.  The  stimulus  of  domestic  fac- 
tories it  was  supposed  would  naturally  increase  the  culture  of  the 
raw  materials,  and,  accordingly,  the  national  industry  was  aided 
from  the  beginning  by  prohibitions  or  excessive  duties,  which  either 
excluded  the  foreign  raw  material  altogether,  or  fostered  the  con- 
traband introduction  of  cotton  twist  and  woollen  thread. 

Cotton  was  among  the  indigenous  products  of  Mexico  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest;  and  the  early  adventurers  not  only  found  it  to 
constitute  the  common  vesture  of  th**  masses  of  the  people,  but  also 


68  MANUFACTURES    ENCOURAGED    IN    MEXICO. 

that  the  most  delicate  and  luxurious  articles  of  dress  were  made  of 
it.  The  Aztecs  possessed  the  art  of  spinning  it  to  an  extreme  de- 
gree of  fineness  and  of  imparting  to  it  the  beautiful  and  brilliant 
dyes  for  which  they  were  celebrated  ;  but  both  these  mysteries 
were  entirely  lost  in  the  general  destruction  of  aboriginal  arts  and 
records  by  the  Spaniards.  Notwithstanding  the  natural  anxiety 
of  Spain  to  furnish  her  colonists  with  her  manufactures,  she  could 
never  prevent  the  people  from  weaving  and  wearing  this  sponta- 
taneous  product  of  their  soil.  And,  although  the  cultivation  of 
the  raw  material  was  neglected  or  not  pursued  with  the  ingenious 
industry  that  would  have  made  it  a  great  staple  product,  it  is 
nevertheless  estimated  that  the  annual  value  of  the  domestic  manu- 
facture in  Mexico  amounted  to  about  $5,000,000.  After  the  con- 
summation of  national  independence,  foreign  nations  hastened  to 
seize  the  trade  of  Mexico  and  to  fill  the  markets  with  an  abundant 
but  costly  supply  of  European  and  American  stuffs.  The  drain  of 
the  precious  metals  which  this  caused  from  a  country  that  pos- 
sessed no  other  article  of  export  to  pay  for  the  imported  merchan- 
dize by  exchanges,  soon  alarmed  the  financiers  of  Mexico,  and  ac- 
cordingly a  higher  scale  of  duties  was  adopted  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  domestic  manufactures.  This,  for  a  long  time,  served  only 
to  augment  the  cost  of  apparel  to  the  Mexican  consumer,  whilst  it 
had  no  other  material  effect  upon  the  fabrics  of  the  country  ex- 
cept to  seduce  a  number  of  wealthy  landholders  into  the  erection 
of  factories,  which  have  cost  them,  at  least,  ten  if  not  twelve  mil- 
lions of  dollars.  Unluckily,  however,  this  amounted  merely  to  the 
creation  of  vast  establishments  which  could  not  rely  upon  the  re- 
sources of  the  country  for  their  supply,  for  the  factories  were  built 
before  the  farms  were  opened  by  which  they  were  to  be  furnished 
with  the  staple ! 

It  is  a  fact,  therefore,  not  very  generally  known,  that  Mexico  has 
become  a  manufacturing  country.  The  water  power  which  is 
abundant  in  many  parts  of  a  mountainous  region  like  that  of 
Mexico,  affords  great  facilities  for  such  establishments. 
"  In  1843  there  were  53  cotton  factories  in  the  republic  with  a 
total  of  131,280  spindles,  and  it  was  estimated  that, — looking 
to  Mexico  alone  for  the  supply,  —  there  would  be  an  annual  defi- 
ciency of  a  large  quantity  of  the  raw  material.  This  calculation, 
it  must  be  remembered,  does  not  include  the  consumption  of  cotton 
by  hand  looms,  an  immense  number  of  which  are  in  constant  use 
through  the  republic. 

In  consequence  of  this  evident  deficiency,  and  the  prospect  of 


NO    NEW    AGRICULTURAL    POPULATION.  69 

the  firm  establishment  of  a  manufacturing  system,  many  persons 
were  induced  to  commence  the  cultivation  of  cotton.  But  their 
failure  was  signal.  It  is  true  that  in  Mexico  the  proportion  of 
small  farmers  and  rural  tenants  is  small,  and  that  the  great  majority 
of  the  owners  of  the  soil  are  large  landholders  who  might  some- 
times change  the  character  of  their  cultivation.  But  these  men  be- 
long to  the  pastoral  rather  than  the  agricultural  age,  and  delight  in 
the  easier  tending  of  their  flocks  and  herds.  In  addition  to  this 
we  must  take  into  consideration  the  well  known  characteristics  of 
the  southern  races  enervated  still  more  by  the  genial  climate  of 
Mexico.  Those  races  are  governed  by  traditions.  As  their  fathers 
wrought — so  they  work.  Their  antipathy  to  change  is  proverbial, 
and  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  see  the  spirit  of  an  anecdote 
related  by  Bazil  Montague,  realized  every  day  in  Mexico. 

"In  a  particular  district  of  Italy,"  says  he,  "the  peasants  loaded 
their  panniers  with  vegetables  on  one  side,  and  balanced  the  oppo- 
site pannier  by  filling  it  with  stones,  and  when  a  traveller  pointed 
out  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  loading  both  panniers  with 
vegetables,  he  was  answered  that  their  forefathers,  from  time  im- 
memorial, had  so  carried  their  produce  to  market;  that  they 
were  wise  and  good  men,  and  that  a  stranger  showed  very  little 
understanding  or  decency  who  interfered  in  the  established  customs 
of  a  country."  Such  are  the  diflSculties  to  be  encountered  in  the 
habits  and  prejudices  of  all  old  nations,  and  the  embarrassment,  in 
the  present  instance,  would  not  be  so  much  in  creating  a  body  of 
gentlemen  planters,  as  in  finding  laborers  to  work  the  plantations 
when  they  had  been  acquired. 

Brought  up  as  most  of  the  Indians  are,  on  small  pieces  of  land, 
or  in  little  villages  among  the  mountains,- they  find  that  the  fruitful 
soil  produces,  almost  spontaneously,  enough  for  their  frugal  sup- 
port. A  skin  or  two,  together  with  a  few  yards  of  cotton  or 
woollen  clotli,  suflSce,  every  few  years,  for  their  requisite  covering. 
The  broad  leaves  of  a  plantain,  or,  a  palm  with  its  matted  vines, 
afford  them  shelter  during  the  day,  whilst  a  kennel  on  the  ground, 
keeps  off  the  rains  or  night  dews.  And  thus,  a  servile  content- 
ment with  traditionary  occupations  or  idleness,  roots  them  to  the 
soil  where  they  were  born,  and  makes  them,  in  fact  though  not  in 
name,  the  hereditary  slaves  of  the  estates  on  which  their  ancestors 
have  worked  for  centuries.  These  men  are,  of  course,  not  to  be 
suddenly  diverted  from  their  tastes ;  and  the  worthy  persons  who 
have  commenced  the  cultivation  of  cotton  in  suitable  districts  of 
the  country  where  the  Indians  are  numerous  and  unemployed,  have 


70  NEW    JNIANUFiVCTUBING    POPULATION. 

been  obliged  to  abandon  their  enterprises  from  the  fact  that  their 
laborers  speedily  deserted  under  the  plea  that  they  were  not  used 
to  such  occupations,  and,  with  less  toil,  had  ample  food  and  rai- 
ment in  their  goats  and  gardens  at  home.  The  reasoning  of  the 
Indians  is  quite  natural  and  even  wise  under  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  their  actual  life.  Money  is  no  object  to  them,  for  they 
have  no  object  upon  which  to  expend  it,  and  their  isolated  exist- 
ence affords  them  no  comparative  scale  of  society  in  which  they 
might  advance  to  a  higher  degree  of  civilization  by  the  possession 
of  wealth.  Why  then  should  they  toil  to  acquire  that  which  to 
them  has  not  even  the  value  of  a  counter  ?  Possessing  without  la- 
bor all  that  is  needed  for  mere  existence,  their  toil  can  only  be  bene- 
ficial to  their  employers.  In  this,  they  perceive  by  their  native 
sagacity,  that  there  is  no  recompense  and  no  equality  of  interests. 

Whilst  such  are  the  reasons  why  a  new  agricultural  population 
cannot  be  created  in  Mexico,  the  reverse  is  precisely  the  case  with 
regard  to  a  new  manufacturing  population.  Factories  are  gener- 
ally erected  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  towns,  or  in  populous 
districts  where  the  surplus  of  females  is  continually  in  the  greatest 
indigence.  These  people  have  neither  pieces  of  land,  nor  gardens, 
nor  goats,  nor  means  of  livelihood  except  beggary  or  the  prison,  and 
consequently  they  flock  with  eagerness  to  every  factory  that  affords 
the  hope  of  employment  and  support.  Thus,  whilst  the  tendency 
of  the  agriculture  of  Mexico  is  to  produce  servitude,  that  of  its 
manufactures  is  to  create  a  feeling  of  honest  independence. 

These  speculations  seem  to  indicate  clearly,  first,  that  the  fixed 
policy  of  Mexico  is  to  establish  a  national  system  of  manufactures; 
and,  secondly,  that  the  cultivation  of  the  staple  which  is  to  supply 
these  factories  will  not  be  largely  increased ;  or  if  it  be  increased 
at  all,  its  augmentation  will  not  be  proportionate  to  the  number  and 
demand  of  the  factories. 

The  connexion  between  the  production  of  cotton  and  its  use  is 
so  close  that  we  have  been  unable  in  the  preceding  passages  to 
avoid  anticipating  some  statements  which  will  be  more  amply  set 
forth  in  our  section  on  Mexican  manufactures.  We  shall  now 
turn  our  attention  to  the  cultivation  and  annual  production  in  the 
republic. 

Throughout  the  cotton  growing  districts  of  the  United  States  the 
cotton  plant  is  of  annual  growth.  Frost  destroys  it,  and  the  plan- 
ter is  obliged  to  renew  the  seed  for  every  crop.     But,  in  the  tierra 


PRODUCTION    OF    COTTON VAINILLA.  7L 

caliente  of  Mexico,  this  is  not  requisite,  as  the  tree  propagates 
itself,  and  the  laborers  are  only  required  to  keep  the  fields  clear  of 
extraneous  plants  which  spring  up  so  rapidly  and  luxuriantly  in 
tropical  climates. 

Notwithstanding  the  advantages  offered  by  the  erection  of  the 
factories  in  Mexico,  the  best  data  obtained  by  Don  Lucas  Alaman 
in  1843,  presented  only  the  following  meagre  returns  of  the  proxi- 
mate quantity  of  cotton  raised  in  some  of  the  states  of  the  republic, 
excluding,  of  course,  the  small  parcels  raised  by  Mestizos  and  In- 
dians for  their  private  consumption  : 


ARROBAS. 

LBS. 

In  the  state  of  Jalisco, 

1,000 

or     25,000 

Sonora, 

.      3,500 

"      87,500 

Durango, 

3,044 

"       76,100 

Oajaca,     . 

.    21,583 

"     539,576 

Puebla, 

3,738 

"       93,450 

Vera  Cruz, 

.     14,496 

"    362,400 

47,361    "1,184,025 
In  this  estimate  the  cleaned  and  uncleaned,  or  ginned  and  un- 
ginned  cotton  are  averaged  together.     It  is   generally  considered, 
however,  that  the  whole   country  really  produces  at  present  about 
seventy  thousand  quintals  or  seven  millions  of  pounds. 

The  quantity,  and  consequently  the  value  of  the  Mexican  cotton 
crop  has  been  very  variable.  At  Tepic  on  the  west  coast,  in 
whose  vicinity  there  are  many  valuable  factories,  it  has  been  sold 
as  low  as  fifteen  dollars  per  quintal ;  while  at  Vera  Cruz  on  the 
east  coast  it  has  risen  to  twenty-two  and  twenty- four  dollars,  and, 
in  Puebla  and  the  city  of  Mexico  it  has  reached  even  to  forty  and 
forty-eight  dollars.  Cotton  gins  have  been  established  at  Alva- 
rado,  at  Cosamaloapan,  and  Tuxtla  on  the  northern  and  eastern 
coasts,  and  at  Tepic,  on  the  west ;  but  they  are  not  sufficiently 
numerous  throughout  the  country  to  supply  even  the  present  limited 
production. 

VaMnilla. 

Mexico  is  generally  considered  the  native  country  of  the  de- 
licious vainilla  bean,  which  grows  wild  along  the  eastern  coast 
amid  the  endless  variety  of  parasitic  plants  with  which  the  forests 
are  filled.  It  is  a  native  of  Vera  Cruz,  Oajaca  and  Tabasco.  On 
the  wooded  mountain  or  hill  slopes  of  the  latter  it  has  been  dis- 
covered in  great  quantities ;  but  throughout  Mexico  this  pleasant 


72  JALAP CACAO COCHINEAL. 

end  valuable  product  has  been  left  almost  entirely, to  the  care  of 
Indians.  Its  cultivation  is  exceedingly  simple.  A  shoot  of  the 
plant  is  inserted  in  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  a  tree  intended  to 
support  the  future  vine,  which,  if  properly  freed  from  the  encum- 
brance of  other  parasites,  soon  embraces  the  trunk,  and  yields 
beans  during  the  third  year.  This  hardy  and  fruitful  plant  lasts 
from  a  quarter  to  half  a  century,  according  to  the  attention  that  is 
bestowed  on  it ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  its  cultivation  has  not 
engaged  the  attention  of  foreigners  who  might  safely  reside  in  the 
beautiful  and  healthy  regions  of  Jalapa. 

Jalap. 

Jalap,  like  vainilla,  is  a  parasitic  plant ;  but  its  root  instead  of 
its  fruit  is  used  for  medicinal  purposes.  Its  leaves  resemble  the 
ivy  and  its  beautiful  red  flowers  open  only  at  night.  Growing 
plentifully  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jalapa,  whence  it  takes  its  name, 
it  is  usually  sent  abroad  through  Vera  Cruz,  where  the  commer- 
cial returns  show  that  more  than  three  thousand  quintals  are  rarely 
exported. 

Cacao. 

The  use  of  chocolate  is  so  universal  in  Mexico  and  throughout 
Spanish  countries,  that  it  might  naturally  be  supposed  the  cultiva- 
tion of  cacao  w'as  largely  and  carefully  attended  to  in  the  republic. 
Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  The  cacao  of  Soconusco,  and  of 
the  low  grounds  of  Caraccas,  Guatemala  and  Guyaquil,  was  found 
to  be  so  superior  to  the  Mexican  article,  that  its  production  has 
been  almost  abandoned  except  in  the  neighborhood  of  Colima,  or 
on  the  Isthmus  and  in  the  states  of  Tabasco  and  Chiapas. 

Cochineal. 

The  Opuntia,  or  Indian  fig,  a  species  of  cactus  is  the  food  in 
Mexico  which  supports  an  insect  from  w-hose  body  the  dye  known 
ts  Cochineal  is  made.  It  is  found  also  in  Brazil  where  it  nour- 
•ishes  the  grana  sylvestre  which  affords  a  dye  that  is  greatly  inferior 
in  color  as  well  as  durability  to  that  produced  by  the  grana  Jlna  of 
Mexico. 

1l\\&  grana  fina  resembles  a  small  bug  in  size  and  color,  covered 
with  a  whitish  mealy  powder,  through  which  the  rings  or  cross 
stripes  on  the  back  of  the  insect  are  distinctly  visible ;  the  female 
alone  produces  the  dye  ;  the  males  are  smaller,  and  one  is  found 
sufficient  to  impregnate  three  hundred  females. 


ITS    PRODUCTION    AND    QUANTITY SILK.  73 

The  cochineal  bug  feeds  only  on  the  leaf  of  the  opuntia.  The 
process  of  rearing  is  complicated  and  attended  with  much  diffi- 
culty. The  leaves  of  the  nopal  upon  which  the  seed  is  deposited, 
must  be  kept  free  from  all  foreign  substances,  and,  in  the  cochin- 
eal districts  the  Indian  women  constantly  tend  the  plants,  brushing 
them  lightly  with  a  squirrel's  tail. 

In  a  good  year  one  pound  of  seed  deposited  upon  the  plant  in 
October,  will  yield  in  December,  twelve  pounds  of  cochineal,  leav- 
ing a  sufficient  quantity  of  seed  behind  for  a  second  crop  in  May. 
The  plantations  of  the  cochineal  cactus  are  confined  to  the  district 
of  the  Misteca,  in  the  state  of  Oajaca  and  in  the  valley  of  Oajaca 
at  Ocotlan. 

Some  of  the  Haciendas  de  Nopales  contain  from  fifty  to  sixty 
tliousand  plants,  arranged  in  lines  like  the  aloes  in  the  Maguey 
plantations  already  described,  and  cut  down  to  a  certain  height,  in 
order  to  enable  the  Nopaleros  to  clean  them  more  easily. 

In  the  year  1758,  a  government  registry-office  was  established 
in  Oajaca,  in  consequence  of  the  complaints  of  British  merchants, 
who  had  received  cargoes  of  adulterated  cochineal.  This  bureau 
kept  an  accurate  account  of  the  production  and  value  of  the  article, 
within  its  jurisdiction,  and  a  tabular  statement  of  the  result  has 
since  been  published  in  the  Memoria  Estadistica  de  Oajaca,  &c.  &c., 
of  Don  J.  M.  Murgnia  y  Galardi,  who  was  a  deputy  to  the  Cortes 
from  that  province.  By  this  document,  and  subsequent  returns,  it 
appears  that  from  1758  to  1832,  inclusive,  —  or  in  75  years, — 
44,195,750  pounds  of  cochineal  were  produced  in  the  state  of 
Oajaca  alone,  which  were  worth  $106,170,671  at  the  market  price. 

Silk. 

After  the  independence  of  Mexico  was  secured  the  Mexicans  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Zelaya,  and  in  a  few  other  places,  attempted 
the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree,  for  the  purpose  of  feeding 
silk  worms.  But  this  agricultural  speculation  failed.  The  plan- 
ters did  not  possess  the  Chinese  mulberry,  which  is  universally 
adopted  as  the  best  in  all  silk  producing  countries. 

In  1841  an  association  under  the  style  of  the  "  Michoacan  Com- 
pany," was  organized,  in  the  capital  of  Michoacan,  for  the  encour- 
agement of  silk  culture.  The  members  of  this  body  labored  dili- 
gently to  introduce  the  Chinese  tree,  and  spread  it  far  and  wide 
through  the  states  of  Vera  Cruz,  Puebla,  Mexico,  Queretaro,  Jalisco, 
Aguascalientes,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Sonora  and  Michoacan,  These 
labors  were  performed  by  thirty-six  Juntas  de  foinento-)  or  com- 
j 


74  FRUIT AGRICULTURAL  PROSPECTS. 

mittees  of  encouragement,  and  akhough  the  trees  have  most  gener- 
ally grown  well,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  enterprise  resembled  the 
wild  speculations  in  that  species  of  mulberry  which,  about  the  same 
period,  both  made  and  lost  so  many  fortunes  in  the  United  States. 
The  cultivation  of  silk  has  been  warmly  urged  by  Don  Lucas  Ala- 
man,  as  exceedingly  suitable  for  the  state  of  Oajaca,  where,  in  the 
course  of  time,  it  may  replace  the  cochineal  whose  product  it 
is  said  is  beginning  to  faU  in  that  district. 

Fruits. 

The  finest  fruits  of  Mexico  are  commonly  found  in  the  tierra 
caliente.  The  orange,  lemon,  lime,  pine  apple,  banana,  chirimoya, 
sapote,  ahuacate,  tuna,  granadita,  are  produced  in  great  perfection. 
The  apples,  peaches,  cherries,  grapes  and  gooseberries  do  not 
possess  the  high  flavor,  nor  are  they  found  in  the  same  varieties, 
as  in  the  United  States ;  but  the  pears,  especially  those  known  as 
Gamboa  pears,  are  exceedingly  delicious.  Nearly  all  these  fruits 
are  consumed  in  their  natural  state,  yet  immense  quantities  are  pre- 
served and  form  the  extraordinary  varieties  of  dukes  without  which 
no  Mexican  table  is  considered  properly  set  forth.  It  is  very  pro- 
bable that  if  horticulture  and  agriculture  were  scientifically  studied 
by  Mexicnns,  or  if  North  American  and  European  gardeners  were  to 
emigrate  to  the  country,  even  the  fruits  which  are  now  inferior  to 
ours,  would  improve  in  quality,  size  and  flavor  under  their  skilful 


management. 


Agricultural  Prospects. 


From  all  that  we  have  already  stated  in  regard  to  the  Indian  or 
laboring  population  of  Mexico,  the  nature  of  the  seasons,  and  the 
want  of  irrigation  in  many  districts,  except  by  artificial  means,  it 
will  be  perceived  that  the  agricultural  progress  of  the  country  is 
extremely  doubtful.  In  addition  to  this,  the  land  belongs  to  a 
few  proprietors,  many  of  whom  own  estates  of  twenty,  thirty,  forty, 
fifty,  and  even  a  hundred  leagues  square,  which  are  chiefly  devoted 
to  herdt  instead  of  agricidture.  Mexico  is  thus  rather  in  the  pas- 
toral than  the  commercial  age,  and  must  pass  through  the  transi- 
tion state  of  independent  sub-divided  labor  before  she  can  stund,  na- 
turally, upon  the  same  platform  with  northern  and  Europe;in  nations. 

The  early  Spanish  settlers  were  eager  monopolists  of  mines  and 
land.  Their  object  was  to  realize  fortunes  speedily  ;  and  by  a 
liberal  repartimienfo  of  Indians  they  were  enabled  to  found  large 
estates   upon  which  those  Indians  either  toiled  as  husbandmen  or 


GRAZING    AND    NOT    AN    AGRICULTURAL    COUNTRY.  75 

tended  uncounted  herds.  The  prolific  soil  soon  yicldctl,  with  little 
labor,  the  required  quantity  of  vegetables  and  cereal  products ; 
domestic  markets  were  wanted  lor  the  sale  of  the  surplus,  and  the 
Spanish  government  did  not  open  its  harbors  for  exportation. 
Agriculture  was  thus  early  limited  tothe  mere  animal  wants  of  the 
glehce  adscripti  and  emigrant  Spaniards,  and  as  the  Indian  never 
labors  except  when  compelled  by  force  or  necessity,  he  soon  pre- 
ferred the  idle  and  wandering  life  of  a  herdsman  to  that  of  a  farmer. 
Many  of  these  estates  now  number  from  ten  to  twenty  thousand 
head  of  cattle.  Besides  this  the  Spanish  laws  presented  the  In- 
dian no  prospects  of  independent  agricultural  rights.  The  foreign 
landholder  enjoyed  the  exclusive  ownership  of  the  vast  freehold. 
There  was  no  encouragement  or  hope  given  to  small  farmers  who 
might  emerge  from  the  servile  race,  and  the  consequence  is  that 
Mexico,  until  she  becomes  an  exporting  country,  receives  an  aug- 
mented population  by  immigration,  and  sub-divides  her  immense  ter- 
ritorial manors,  under  the  demands  of  trade,  will,  in  all  likelihood 
remain  stationary  in  every  thing  pertaining  to  agriculture.  It  is 
the  multiplication  of  freeholders  under  the  stimulus  of  commerce, 
that  promotes  freedom,  industry,  and  personal  independence. 
Competition  is  continually  excited  by  the  wants  of  a  innnerous 
nation,  or  by  the  prospect  of  selling  the  results  of  our  labor  to 
others  abroad  who  are  not  so  well  supplied  or  do  not  produce  the 
articles  we  cultivate  and  manufacture.  But  Mexico,  as  at  present 
constituted,  is  an  exceedingly  small  white  civilized  nation,  if  we 
exclude  her  four  and  a  half  millions  of  Indians.  She  is  not  in- 
creased annually  by  immigration  from  the  crowded  countries  of  the 
Old  World,  nor  does  she  encourage  the  advent  of  strangers.  Her 
population  therefore  is  substantially  confined  within  the  narrow 
limits  of  natural  increase  by  birth  alone.  These  singular  facts  ex- 
hibit the  anomalous  condition  of  all  the  Spanish  settlements  upon 
tlie  virgin  and  inviting  soil  of  America;  and  until  the  Chinese  ex- 
clusiveness  of  these  various  western  nations  is  abandoned  as  an 
absurdity  in  the  nineteenth  century,  we  do  not  believe  that  the 
Arab  plough  will  be  replaced  by  the  civilized  implements  of  North 
American  agriculture,  or  that  the  Mexican  shepherd  will  turn  into 
an  enlightened  farmer.  We  have  seen  that  even  the  stimulus  of 
domestic  demand  for  cotton,  has  been  unable  to  produce  a  new 
agricultural  class  among  those  who  were  devoted  to  other  tradi- 
tionary toils.  What  hope,  then,  can  there  be  of  an  improvement 
in  cereal  cultivation,  when  the  country  is  already  supplied,  and 
owns  neither  a  navy  nor  merchantmen  ? 


CHAPTER    VI. 


REFLECTIONS  ON  EMIGRATION ADVANTAGES  OF  AMERICA LAND 

AND  LABOR,  MINES  WROUGHT  BY  AZTECS MINING  DIS- 
TRICTS AND  EXTENT  IN  M^ICO. ERRORS  AS  TO  EARLY  SUP- 
PLY OF  METALS  FROM  AMERICA TRUE  PERIOD  OF  ABUNDANCE 

MINES  NOT  EXHAUSTED CONDITION FAMILIES  ENRICHED. 

EFFECT  OF  MINING    ON    AGRICULTURE. RELATIVE   PRODUCT 

OF  SILVER  FOR  TEN    YEARS  TABLE     OF    PRODUCT YIELD    OF 

THE    MINES    SINCE    THE    CONQUEST.  COINAGE     1844 TOTAL 

COINAGE  1535  to  1850. 

Mexican  Mines,  Mineral  Wealth  and  Coinage. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  mineral  wealth  of  America  was 
one  of  the  most  powerful  stimulants  of  the  Spanish  conquest  and 
subsequent  emigration ;  nor  is  the  idea  erroneous  if  we  recollect 
the  manner  in  which  the  Castilian  power  was  founded  on  this  con- 
tinent and  the  colonial  policy  it  originated.  It  will  be  seen  by  the 
tables  annexed  to  this  section,  that  the  results  have  largely  fulfilled 
the  hopes  of  the  European  adventurers,  and  that  the  wealth  of  the 
world  has  been  immensely  augmented  and  sustained,  by  the 
discovery  of  our  Continent.  In  the  order  of  the  earth's  gradual 
development,  under  the  intellectual  enterprise  or  bodily  labor  of 
man,  we  find  the  most  beautiful  system  of  accommodation  to  the 
growing  wants  or  capacities  of  our  race.  Space  is  required  for  the 
crowded  population  of  the  Old  World,  and  a  new  continent  is  sud- 
denly opened,  into  which  the  cramped  and  burdened  millions  may 
find  room  for  industry  and  independent  existence.  The  political 
institutions  of  Europe  decay  in  consequence  of  the  encroachments 
of  power,  the  social  degradation  of  large  masses  by  unjust  or  un- 
wise systems,  or  the  enforced  operation  of  oppressive  laws,  and  a 
virgin  country  is  forthwith  assigned  to  man  in  which  the  principle 
of  self  government  may  be  tried  without  the  necessity  of  casting 
oflfby  violence  the  old  fetters  of  feudalism.  The  increasing  indus- 
try or  invention  of  the  largely  augmented  populations  of  the  earth, 
exacts  either  a  larger  amount  or_a  new  standard  of  value  for  the 
precious  metals,  and  regions  are  discovered  among  the  Irosts  and 
forests  of  a  far  off  continent,  in  which  the  fable  of  the  golden  sands 
of  Pactolus  is  realized.     The  labor  of  men  and  the  flight  of  time 


LAND    AND    LABOR.  77 

strip  commercial  countries  of  their  trees,  yet,  in  order  to  support  the 
required  supply  of  fuel,  not  only  for  the  comfort  and  preservation 
but  also  for  the  industry  of  the  race,  the  heart  of  the  earth  beneath 
the  soil  which  is  required  for  cultivation,  is  found  to  be  veined 
with  inexhaustible  supplies  of  mineral  coal. 

The  bounty  and  the  protective  forethought  of  God  for  his  crea- 
tures is  not  only  intimated  but  proved  by  these  benevolent  store- 
houses of  treasure,  comfort  and  freedom ;  and  whilst  we  acknow- 
ledge them  with  proper  gratitude,  we  should  not  forget  that  their 
acquirement  and  enduring  possession  are  only  to  be  paid  for  by 
labor,  economy,  and  social  as  well  as  political  forbearance. 

We  do  not  think  these  observations  out  of  place  in  a  chapter 
devoted  to  the  mineral  wealth  of  Mexico.  The  subject  of  property 
and  its  representative  metals,  should  be  approached  in  a  reflective 
and  christian  spirit,  in  an  age  in  which  the  political  and  personal 
misery  of  the  overcrowded  masses  of  Europe,  is  forcing  them  to 
regard  all  who  are  better  provided  for,  or  more  fortunate  by  thrift 
or  the  accident  of  birth,  as  enemies  of  the  poor.  The  demagogue 
leaders  of  these  wretched  classes,  pushing  the  principle  of  just 
equalization  to  a  ridiculous  and  hideous  extreme,  have  not  hesi- 
tated to  declare  in  France,  since  the  revolution  of  February,  1848, 
that  "  property  is  robbery."^  We  shall  not  pause  to  examine  or 
refute  the  false  dogma  of  a  dangerous  incendiary.  The  common 
sense  as  well  as  the  common  feeling  of  mankind  revolts  at  it. 
Property,  as  the  world  is  constituted  by  God,  is  the  source  of  new 
industry,  because  it  is,  under  the  laws  of  all  civilized  nations,  the 
original  result  of  industry.  "  It  makes  the  meat  it  feeds  on." 
Without  it  there  would  be  no  duty  of  labor,  no  exercise  of  human 
ingenuity  or  talent,  no  responsibility,  no  reward.  The  mind  and 
body  would  stagnate  under  such  a  monstrous  contradiction  of  all 
our  physical  and  intellectual  laws.  The  race  would  degenerate 
into  its  former  savage  condition  ;  and  force,  instead  of  its  antago- 
nists, industry  and  honest  competition,  would  usurp  the  dominion 
of  the  world  and  end  this  vicious  circle  of  bastard  civilization. 

And  yet  it  is  the  duty  of  an  American,  —  who,  from  his  superior 
position,  both  in  regard  to  space  in  which  he  can  find  employment 
and  equal  political  laws  by  which  that  employment  is  protected, 
stands  on  a  vantage  ground  above  the  confined  and  badly  gov- 
erned masses  of  Europe, — to  regard  the  present  position  of  the 
European  masses  not  only  with  humane  compassion,  but  to  sympa- 
thize with  that  natural  feeling  that  revolts  against  a  state  of  society 

1  "  La  proprieie  c^esl  le  vol."     Prudhon. 


78 


MINES WROUGHT    BY    AZTECS. 


which  it  seems  impossible  to  ameliorate,  and  yet  whose  wants  or 
luxuries  do  not  afTord  them  support.  It  is  hard  to  suffer  hun^^cr 
and  to  see  our  dependants  die  of  starvation,  when  we  are  both  able 
and  willing  to  work  for  wages  but  can  obtain  no  work  upon  which 
to  exercise  our  ingenuity  or  our  hands.  It  is  frightful  to  reflect, 
says  P«Ir.  Carlyle,  in  one  of  his  admirable  essays,  that  there  is 
hardly  an  English  horse,  in  a  condition  to  labor  for  his  owner,  that 
is  deprived  of  food  and  lodging,  whilst  thousands  of  human  beings 
rise  daily  from  their  obscure  and  comfortless  dens  in  the  British 
isles,  who  do  not  know  how  they  shall  obtain  employment  for  the 
day  by  which  they  may  purchase  a  meal. 

To  this  dismal  account  of  European  suffering,  the  condition  of 
the  American  continent  affords  the  best  reply.  The  answer  and 
the  remedy  are  both  displayed  in  the  social  and  political  institu- 
tions, as  well  as  in  the  boundless  unoccupied  and  prolific  tracts  of 
our  country.  Labor  cries  out  for  work  and  recompense  from  the 
Old  World,  whilst  the  New  displays  her  soil,  her  mines,  her  com- 
merce and  her  trades,  as  the  best  alms  that  one  nation  can  bestow 
on  another,  because  they  come  direct  from  God  and  are  the  reward 
of  meritorious  industry.  Before  such  a  tribunal  the  modern  dema- 
gogue of  continental  Europe  shrinks  into  insignificance,  and  the 
laws  of  labor  are  effectually  vindicated. 

The  Mines  of  Mexico  have  been  wrought  from  the  earliest 
periods.  Long  before  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards,  the  natives  of 
Mexico,  like  those  of  Peru,  were  acquninted  with  the  use  of  metals. 
Nor  were  they  contented  with  such  specimens  as  they  found  scat- 
tered at  random  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  or  in  the  ravines  of 
mountain  torrents,  but  had  already  learned  to  dig  shafts,  pierce 
galleries,  form  needful  implements,  and  trace  the  metallic  veins  in 
the  hearts  of  mountains.  We  know  that  they  possessed  gold,  sil- 
ver, lead,  tin,  copper  and  cinnabar.  Beautiful  samples  of  jewelry 
were  wrought  by  them,  and  gold  and  silver  vases,  constructed  in 
Mexico,  were  sent  to  Spain  by  the  conquerors,  as  testimonials  of 
the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country.  The  dependant  tribes  paid 
their  tributes  to  the  sovereign  in  a  species  of  metallic  currency, 
which  though  not  stamped  by  royal  order,  was  yet  the  representa- 
tive of  a  standard  value.  The  exact  position  of  all  the  mines  from 
which  these  treasures  were  derived  by  the  Aztecs  is  not  certainly 
known  at  the  present  day,  but  as  the  natives  were  often  compelled 
to  indicate  some  of  the  sources  of  their  riches  to  the  conquerors 
there  is  little  doubt  that  the  present  mineral  district  of  the  republic 
is  thfit  from  which  they  procured  their  chief  supplies. 


MINING    DISTRICTS    AND    EXTENT    IN    MEXICO.  79 

The  mines  of  Mexico  may  be  classed  in  eight  groups,  nearly  all 
of  which  are  placed  on  the  top  or  on  the  western  slope  of  the  great 
Cordillera. 

The  first  of  these  groups  has  been  the  most  productive,  and 
embraces  the  districts  contiguous  to  Guanajuato,  San  Luis  Potosi, 
Charcas,  Catorce,  Zacatecas,  Asientos  de  Ybarra,  Fresnillo  and 
Sombrerete. 

The  second  comprises  the  mines  situated  west  of  the  city  of  Du- 
rango  as  well  as  those  in  Sinaloa,  for  the  labors  of  engineers  have 
brought  them  so  close  to  each  other  by  their  works  that  they 
may  be  united  in  the  same  geological  division. 

The  third  group  is  the  northernmost  in  Mexico,  and  is  that 
which  embraces  the  mines  of  Chihuahua  and  Cosiguiriachi.  It 
extends  from  the  27th°  to  the  29th°  of  north  latitude. 

The  fourth  and  fifth  clusters  are  found  north-east  of  Mexico, 
and  are  formed  by  the  mines  of  Real  del  Monte  or  Pachuca,  and 
Zimapan,  or,  El  Doctor. 

'     Bolaiios,  in   Guadalajara,  and  Tasco   in  Oajaca,  are  the  central 
points  of  the  sixth^  seventh  and  eighth.  ^ 

The  reader  who  will  cast  his  eye  over  the  map  of  Mexico,  will 
at  once  perceive  that  the  geographical  space  covered  by  this  me- 
talliferous region,  is  small  when  compared  with  the  great  extent  of 
the  whole  country.  The  eight  groups  into  which  the  mining  dis- 
tricts are  divided  occupy  a  space  of  twelve  thousand  square  leagues^ 
or  one  tenth  only  of  the  whole  extent  of  the  Mexican  republic  as  it 
existed  previous  to  the  treaty  of  1848  and  before  the  mineral  wealth 
of  California  and  probably  of  New  Mexico  was  known  to  the  world. 
But  as  that  treaty  confirmed  and  ceded  to  the  United  States  more 
than  one  half  of  the  ancient  territory  of  Mexico,  we  may  estimate 
the  mining  region  as  covering  fully  one  fifth  of  the  remainder. 

Before  the  discovery  and  conquest  of  the  West  Indies  and  the 
American  continent,  Europe  had  looked 'to  the  east  for  her  chief 
supplies  of  treasure.  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  not 
as  was  so  long  imagined,  because  he  foresaw  the  existence  of 
another  continent,  but  because  he  sought  a  shorter  route  to  the 
rich  and  golden  Zipangou,  and  to  the  spice  regions  of  eastern  Asia. 
Columbus  and  Vespuccius  both  died  believing  that  they  had 
reached  eastern  Asia,  and  thus  a  geographical  mistake  led  to  the 
greatest  discovery  that  has  ever  been  made.  In  proof  of  these  as- 
sertions we  may  state  that  Columbus  designed  delivering  at  Cuba, 
the  missives  of  the  Spanish  king  to  the  great  Kahn  of  the  Mongols, 

■  Humboldt,  Essai  Politique,  Book  iv.,  chap.  ii.  -  Paris,  1811. 


80  KRRORS  AS  TO  EARLY  SUPPLY 

and  that  he  imagined  himself  in  Mangi  the  capital  of  the  soutliern 
region  of  Cathay  or  China!  "The  Island  of  Hispaniola,"  (Hayti) 
he  declares  to  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  in  a  letter  found  in  the  archives 
of  the  Duke  of  Varaguas, —  "is  Tarshish,  Ophir,  and  Zipangou. 
In  my  second  voyage,  I  have  discovered  fourteen  hundred  islands, 
and  a  shore  of  three  hundred  and  thirty-three  miles,  belonging  to 
the  continent  of  Asia."  This  West  Indian  Zipangou  produced 
golden  fragments  or  spangles,  weighing  eight,  ten  and  even  twenty 
pounds.  ' 

Before  the  discovery  of  the  silver  mines  of  Tasco,  on  the  western 
slope  x)f  lh£_3Iexican  Cordillera,  in  the  yeaiL1522,  America  sup- 
•jp^ed-  oniy^^old  to-  the  Old  World,  and  consequently,  Isabella  of 
G(tsti4eAvas  obliged,  already  irl  149.7,  to  modify  greatly,  the  relative 
value  of  the  two  precious  metals  used  for  currency.  Tliis  was 
doubtless  the  origin  of  the  Medina  edict — which  changes^the  old 
legal  ratio  ef^  :  10.7!  YjEt-Humboldt.has  shown  that,  from  1492 
to  1500,  the  quantity  of  gold  drawn  from  the  parts  of  the  New 
World  then  known,  did  not  amottnt,  annually,  to  xiore  than  about 
one  thousand  pounds  avoirdupois  ;  —  and  the  Pope  Alexander  VI., 
who,  by  his  famous  Bull,  bestowed  one  half  the  earth  upon  the 
Spanish  kings,  only  received  in  return,  from  Ferdinand  the  Catho- 
lic, some  small  fragments  of  gold  from  Hayti,  to  gild  a  portion 
of  the  dome  of  the  Basilica  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore ;  —  a  gift  - 
that  was  suitably  acknowledged  in  a  Latin  inscription  in  which  the 
offering  is  set  forth  as  the  first  that  had  been  received  by  the 
Catholic  sovereigns  from  India.   _ 

Although  the  income  of  treasure  must  have  increased  somewhat, 
yet  the  working  of  the^American  mines  did  not  yield  three  millions 
of  dollars  yearly  untilv^^S^^  The  ransom  of  Atahualpa  amounted, 
according  to  Gomara,  to  about  four  hundred  and  twenty-five  thou- 
sand dollars  of  our  standard,  or  fifty-two  thousand  marks  of  silver, 
whilst,  the  pillage  of  ihe  Temples  at  Cuzco,  if  Herrera  is  to  be  cre- 
dited, did  not  produce  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred marks,  or  a  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  our 
currency.  - 

It  has  been  generally  imagined  that  the  wealth  of  the  New  World 
immediately  and  largely  enriched  the  Spanish  kings  or  their  people; 
and  that  the  sovereigns,  under  whose  auspices  the  discovery  was 

'  See  Humbolcirs  essay  on  the  production  of  gold  and  silver  in  tlie  Journal  des 
Economistes  for  March,  April  and  May,  1838. 

"'  See  Huinboldl's  Essay  on  Precious  Metals,  ut  anlea -in  note -in  the  American 
translation,  given  in  vol.  iii.,  of  the  Bankers  Magazine,  p.  509. 


OF    METALS    FROM    AMERICA.  81 

made,  participated,  at  once,  in  the  treasures  that  were  found  in  the 
possession  of  the  Indian  rulers.  Such,  however,  was  not  the  case. 
The  hisfonSn  Ranke,  in  his  essay  on  the  Spanish  finances,  has 
shown,  by  new  documents  and  official  vouchers,  the  small  quantity 
of  the  precious  metals  which  the  American  mines,  and  the  supposed 
treasures  of  the  Incas  yielded.  ^  It  is.proiiable  that  the  conquerors 
did  not  make  exact  returns  to  the  court  of  their  acquisitions,  or 
that  the  revenue  officers,  appointed  at  an  early  period  of  American 
history,  were  not  remarkable  for  the  fidelity  with  which  they  trans- 
mitted the  sums  that  came  into  their  possession  as  servants  of  the 
crown ;  and  thus  it  happened  that  neither  the  king  of  Spain  nor  his 
kingdom,  w^as  speedily  enriched  by  the  New  World.  Baron  Hum- 
boldt, in  one  of  his  late  publications,  gives  an  interesting  extract 
from  a  letter  written  by  a  friend  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  a  few 
days  after  his  death,  which  exhibits  the  finances  of  that  king  in  a 
different  light  from  that  in  which  they  have  been  hitherto  viewed. 
In  an  epistle  to  the  bishop  of  Tuy,  Peter  Martyr  says,  that  this 
"Lord  of  many  realms,  —  this  wearer  of  so  many  laurels,  —  this 
diffuser  of  the  Christian  faith  and  vanquisher  of  its  enemies, —  died 
poor,  in  a  rustic  hut.  Whilst  he  lived  no  one  imagined  that  after 
his  death  it  would  be  discovered  that  he  possessed  scarcely  money 
enough  either  to  defray  the  ceremony  of  his  sepulture,  or  to  furnish 
his  few  retainers  with  suitable  mourning  !  "  ^  The  adventurers  in 
America.,  were  doubtless  enriched,  and  duly  reported  their  gains  to 
friends  at  home ;  but  Spain  itself  was  not  speedily  improved  by 
their  acquisitions. 

The  Tise^lnjthe  prices  of  grain  and  other  products  of  agriculture 
or  human  industry,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
especially  from  1570  to  1595,  indicates  the  true  beginning  of  the 
plentiful  flow  of  th«~^'eeious  metals  to  the  Old  World,  in  conse- 
quence of  whicli  their  value  diminished  and  the  results  of  European 
industry  increased  in  price.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  com- 
mencement of  the  beneficial  working  of  the  American  mines  about 
that  period.  The_real  opening_.QjL-the  mines  of  Potosi,  by  the 
Spanish  conquerors,  dai[es  from  the  year  154B;  and  it  was  between 
this  epoch  and  1595,  that  the  splendid  masses  of  silver  from  Tasco, 
Zacatecas,  and  "^Pachuca^^  in  New  Spain ;  and  from  Potosi,  Porco— 
and  Oruro,  in  the  chain  of  Peruvian  Andes,  began  to  be  distributed 
more  uniformly  over  Europe,  and  to  affect  the  price  of  its  produc- 

•  See  Ranke  :  Fursten  and  Volker,  vol.  i.,  pp.  347,  355. 
2  Pet.  Mart.  Epist.  lib.  xxix.,  No.  556,  23d  January,  1516. 
E 


82  ^  TRUE    PERIOD    OF    ABUNDANCE. 

tions.     Exom  the-period.ofJhe  adininistration  of  Cortez  to  the  year 

1    1552,  when  the  celebrated  mines  of  Zacatecas  were  just  opened,  the 

export  from  Mexico,  rarely  reached  in  value,  annually,  100,000 

pesos  de  oro,  or  nearly  $1,165,000.     But  from  that  date  it  rose 

rapidly,  and  in  the  years  1569,  1^78" and  ^^87,  it  was  already, 

respectively  — 

931,564  Pesos  de  oro.  ')  The  Peso  de  oro,  is  rated  by  Prescott, 
1,111,202        "  "      >      at  $11.65   cents,   and  by  Ramirez, 

1,812,051        "  ''      )      at  $2.93  cents.  I 

During  the  last  peaceful  epoch  of  the  Spanish  domination,  Ba- 
ron Humboldt  calculates  the  annual  yield  of  the  mines  of  Mexico 
at  not  more  than  $23,000,000,  or  nearly  1,184,000  pounds,  avoir- 
dupois, of  silver,  and  3,500  pounds,  avoirdupois,  of  gold.  From 
1690  to  1803  — $1,330,772,093  were  coined  in  the  o??/^  mint  of 
Mexico  ;  while,  from  the  discovery  of  New  Spain  until  its  inde- 
pendence, about  $2,028,000,000,  or  two-fifths  of  all  the  precious 
metals  which  the  whole  of  the  New  World  has  supplied  during  the 
same  period,  were  furnished  by  Mexico  alone.  ^ 

It  appears  from  these  data  that  the  exhaustion  of  the  mines  of 
Mexico  is  contradicted  by  the  geognostic  facts  of  the  country,  and 
as  we  shall  hereafter  show,  by  the  recent  issues  of  Mexican  mints. 
The  mint  of  Zacatecas,  alone,  during  the  revolutionary  epoch,  from 
1811  to  1833,  struck  more  than  $66,332,766,  and,  in  the  eleven 
last  years  of  this  period,  from  four  to  five  millions  of  dollars  were 
coined  by  it  every  year  uninterruptedly. 

The  general  metallic  production  of  the  country,  —  which  was  of 
course  impeded  by  the  revolutionary  state  of  New  Spain  between 
1809  and  1826,  —  has  arisen  refreshed  from  its  slumber,  so  that, 
according  to  the  best  accounts  it  has  ascended  to  perhaps  twen- 
ty millions  annually  in  total  production,  in  consequence  of  the 
prolific  yield  of  the  w^orkings  at  Fresnillo,  Chihuahua,  and  So 
nora,  independent  of  the  abundant  production  at  Zacatecas. 

'  See  M.  Ternaux-Compans' Original  Memoirs  of  the  discovery  of  America — (Con- 
quest of  Mexico,p.  451) — Compans  publishes  in  this,  for  the  first  time,  an  official  list 
sent  between  1522  and  1587  by  the  viceroys  of  New  Spain  to  the  mother  country. 
The  PESOS  of  gold,  must  be  multiplied  by  a  mean  of  eleven  dollars  and  sixty-five  cents 
in  order  to  give  their  value  in  dollars.  See  Banker's  Magazine,  ut  antea,  p.  594,  in 
note.  See  Prescott's  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  320.  Raminez,  in 
his  notes  on  the  Spanish  translation  of  Prescott's  History  of  the  Conquest  rates  the  peso 
de  oro  at  two  dollars  and  ninety-three  cents.  This  result  is  reached  by  a  long  finan- 
cial calculation  and  course  of  reasoning.  See  La  Conquista  de  Mejico,  vol.  ii.,  at  p. 
R9  of  the  notes  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

^  Tliis  is  Humboldt's  estimate  in  the  essay  cited  in  this  section.  We  think  it 
rather  too  large,  yet  give  it  upon  such  high  authority.*  See  our  general  table  of 
Mexican  coinage. 


MINES    NOT    EXHAUSTED CONDITION.  83 

The  Mexican  mines  were  eagerly  and  even  madly  seized  by  the 
English,  and  even  by  the  people  of  the  United  States,  as  objects 
of  splendid  speculation,  as  soon  as  the  country  became  settled ; 
but,  in  consequence  of  bad  management,  or  the  wild  spirit  of  gam- 
bling which  assumed  the  place  of  prudent  commercial  enterprise, 
the  holders  of  stock  were  either  disappointed  or  sometimes  ruined. 
Subsequently,  however,  the  proprietors  have  learned  that  prudence 
and  the  experience  of  old  Mexican  miners  was  better  than  the  theo- 
retical principles  upon  which  they  designed  producing  larger  reve- 
nues than  had  ever  been  obtained  by  the  original  Spanish  workmen. 
Their  imported  modern  machinery  and  engines  for  voiding  water 
from  the  shafts  and  galleries  is  the  chief  beneficial  improvement 
introduced  since  the  revolution ;  but  the  enormous  cost  of  trans- 
porting the  heavy  materials,  in  a  country  where  there  are  no  navi- 
gable rivers  extending  into  the  heart  of  the  land,  and  where  the 
usual  mode  of  carriage  is  on  the  backs  of  mules,  by  wretched 
roads  over  mountains  and  through  ravines,  has  often  absorbed  large 
portions  of  the  original  capital  before  the  proprietors  even  began 
to  employ  laborers  to  set  up  their  foreign  engines.  Many  of  the 
first  British  and  American  adventurers  or  speculators  have,  thus, 
been  ruined  by  unskilful  enterprises  in  Mexican  mines.  Their 
successors,  however,  are  beginning  to  reap  the  beneficial  results  of 
this  expenditure,  and,  throughout  the  republic  steam  engines,  to- 
gether with  the  best  kinds  of  hydraulic  apparatus,  have  superseded 
the  Spanish  malacates. 

"  Whenever  these  superb  countries  which  are  so  greatly  favored 
by  nature,"  says  Humboldt,  in  his  essay  on  gold  and  silver,  in  the 
Journal  des  Economistes,  "shall  enjoy  perfect  peace  after  their  deep 
and  prolonged  internal  agitations,  new  jnetallic  deposites  will  ne- 
cessarily be  opened  and  developed.  In  what  region  of  the  globe, 
except  America,  can  be  cited  such  abundant  examples  of  wealth, 
in  silver  ?  Let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  near  Sombrerete,  where 
mines  were  opened  as  far  back  as  1555,  the  family  of  Fagoaga,  — ^ 
Marquesses  de  Apartado,  —  derived,  in  the  short  space  oi  Jive 
■months,  from  a  front  of  one  hundred  and  two  feet  in  the  outcrop- 
ping of  a  silver  mine,  a  net  profit  of  $4,000,000 ;  while,  in  the 
mining  district  of  Catorce,  in  the  space  of  two  years  and  a  half, 
between  1781  and  the  end  of  1783,  an  ecclesiastic,  named  Juan 
Flores,  gained  -t»3, 500,000,  on  ground  full  of  chloride  of  silver  and 
of  colorados  !  " 

One_of_the  most  flourishing  establishments  in  1842,  was  the 
Zac^ecano-Mejicano    Mining    Company    of  Fresnillo.      Its    120 


84  FAMILIES    ENRICHED. 

shares,  which  originally  cost  ^2,800,  were  still  held  by  Spaniards 
and  Mexicans.  These  mines  were  originally  wrought  by  the  state 
of  Zacatecas ;  but,  in  1836^  Santa  Anna,  took  possession,  by  an 
alleged  right  of  conquest,  and  rented  them  for  twelve  years,  to  the 
successful  company.  In  the  first  half  year  of  1841,  they  produced 
$1,025,113,  at  a  cost  of  $761,800,  or  a  clear  profit  of  $263,313. 

Mexico,  under  the  colonial  system  with  the  immense  product  of 
:  her  mines,  and  notwithstanding  the  richness  of  her  soil  for  agricul- 
/tural  purposes,  became  almost  entirely  a  silver  producing  country. 
The  policy  of  Spain  was,  as  we  have  already  often  stated,  to  be 
the  workshop  of  the  New  World,  while  Mexico  and  Peru  were  the 
treasures  of  the  Old.  The  consequence  of  this  was  natural. 
Mexico,  one  of  the  finest  agricultural  and  grazing  lands  in  the 
world,  but  with  no  temptations  to  export  her  natural  products,  as  , 
she  had  no  markets  for  them  elsewhere,  and  no  roads,  canals,  or 
rivers  to  convey  her  products  to  seaports  for  shipment  even  if  she 
had  possessed  consumers  in  Europe,  at  once  devoted  herself  to  her 
mines  which  were  to  be  both  wealth  and  the  representatives  of 
wealth.  Her  agriculture,  accordingly,  assumed  the  standard  of  the 
mere  national  home  consumption,  while  the  pastoral  and  horticul- 
tural interests  followed  the  same  line,  except  perhaps,  within  late 
years  in  California,  where  a  profitable  trade  was  carried  on  by  the 
missions  in  hides  and  tallow.  From  this  restrictive  law  of  expor- 
^  tation  we  of  course  except  vainilla,  cochineal  and  a  few  other  minor  • 
articles. 

The  sources  of  the  wealth  of  the  principal  families  of  Mexico 
will  consequently  be  found  in  her  mines,  and  an  interesting  sum- 
mary of  this  aristocracy  is  given  by  Mr.  Ward  in  his  "  Mexico  in 
1827,"  to  prove  the  fact.  The  family  of  Regla,  which  possessed 
large  estates  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  purchased  the  whole 
of  them  with  the  proceeds  of  the  mines  of  Real  del  Monte.  The 
wealth  of  the  Fagoagas  was  derived  from  the  great  Bonanza  of  the 
Pavellon  at  Sombrerete.  The  mines  of  Balanos  founded  the  Viban- 
cos.  Valenciana,  Ruhl,  Perez-Galvez,  and  Otero,  are  all  indebted 
for  their  possessions  to  the  mines  of  Valenciana  and  Villalpando, 
at  Guanajuato.  The  family  of  Sardaneta,  —  formerly  Marqueses 
de  Rayas,  —  took  its  rise  from  the  mine  of  that  name.  Cata  and 
Meliado  enriched  their  original  proprietor,  Don  Francisco  Matias 
de  Busto,  Marquis  of  San  Clemente.  The  three  successive  for- 
tunes of  the  celebrated  Laborde,  of  whom  we  shall  speak  hereafter 
when  we  describe  Cuernavaca,  were  derived   from  the  mines  of 


EFFECT    OF    MINING    ON    AGRICULTURE.  85 

Quebradilla,  and  San  Acasio  at  Zacatecas,  and  from  the  Canada 
which  bore  his  name  at  Tlalpujahua.  The  beautiful  estates  of  the 
Obregones,  near  Leon,  were  purchased  with  the  revenues  of  the 
mines  of  La  Purisima  and  Concepcion,  at  Catorce ;  as  was  also  the 
estate  of  Malpasso  acquired  by  the  Gordoas  from  the  products  of 
of  La  Luz.  The  Zambranos,  —  discoverers  of  Guarisamey,  — 
owned  many  of  the  finest  properties  in  Durango  ;  while  Batopillas 
gave  the  Bustamantes  the  opportunity  to  purchase  a  title  and  to 
enjoy  an  immense  unencumbered  income.^ 
y.  Nevertheless,  some  of  the  large  fortunes  of  Mexico  were  made 
^^  either  by  trade  or  the  possession  of  vast  agricultural  and  cattle  es- 
tates in  sections  of  the  country  where  there  were  either  no  mines, 
or  where  mining  was  unprofitable.  The  Agredas  were  enriched" 
by  commerce,  while  the  descendants  of  Cort^z  who  received  a 
royal  grant  of  the  valley  of  Oajaca,  together  with  some  Spanish 
merchants  in  Jalapa  and  Vera  Cruz,  derived  the  chief  part  of  their 
fortunes  from  landed  estates,  cultivated  carefully  during  the  period 
when  the  Indians  were  under  better  agricultural  subjection  than  at 
present. 

\  Thus  the  mines,  and  the  mining  districts,  by  aggregating  a  large 
lab^TTTTg^  population,  in  a  country  in  which  there  were,  until  re- 
cently, but  few  manufactures,  and  in  which  the  main  body  of  the 
people  engaged  either  in  trades  or  in  tending  cattle,  became  the 
centre  of  some  of  the  most  active  agricultural  districts.  "  The 
most  fertile  portions  of  the  tafele  ,l^d  are  the  Baxio,  which  is  im- 
mediately contiguous  to  Guanajuato^jV^nd  comprises  a  portion  of 
-Valladolid,- Guadalajara,  Queretaro,  and  Guanajuato.  The  valley 
Vpf  Toluca,  and  tlie  southern  part  of  the  state  of  Valladolid,  both 
supply  the  capital  and  the  mining  districts  of  Tlalpujahua,  El 
Oro,  Temascaltepec  and  Angangeo  ;  —  the  plains  of  Pachuca  and 
Appam,  which  extend  on  either  side  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
upon  which  the  mines  of  Real  del  Monte  Chico  are  situated ;  — 
Itzmiquilpan,  which  owes  its  existence  to  Zimapan ;  —  Aguas 
Calientes,  by  which  the  great  mining  town  of  Zacatecas  is  sup- 
plied ;  —  a  considerable  circle  in  the  vicinity  of  Sorabrerete  and 
Fresnillo  ;  —  the  valley  of  Jarral  and  the  plains  about  San  Luis 
Potosi,  which  town  again  derives  its  name  from  the  mines  of  the 
Cerro  de  San  Pedro,  about  four  leagues  from  the  gates,  the  sup- 
posed superiority  of  which  to  the  celebrated  mines  of  Potosi  in 
Peru  gave  rise  to  the  appellation  of  Potosi.  A  little  farther  north 
we  find  the  district  of  Matehuala,  now  a  thriving  town  with  more 

'  Ward's  Mexico  in  1827,  vol.  ii,  p.  151. 


86  EFFECT    OF    MINING    ON    AGRICULTURE. 

than  seven  thousand  inhabitants,  created  by  the  discovery  of 
Catorce,  while  about  the  same  time,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last 
century,  Durango  rose  into  importance  from  the  impulse  given  to 
the  surrounding  country  by  the  labors  of  Zambrano  at  San  Dimas 
and  Guarisamey.  Its  population  increased  in  twelve  years  from 
eight  to  twenty  thousand  ;  while  whole  streets  and  squares  were 
added  to  its  extent  by  the  munificence  of  that  fortunate  miner.  To 
the  extreme  north,  Santa  Eulalia  gave  rise  to  the  town  of  Chihua- 
hua ;  Batopilas  and  El  Parral  became  each  the  centre  of  a  little 
circle  of  cultivation;  Jesus  Maria  produced  a  similar  effect;  Mapimi, 
Cuencame,  and  Inde,  a  little  more  to  the  southward,  served  to 
develope  the  natural  fertility  of  the  banks  of  the  river  Nazas ; 
while  in  the  low  hot  regions  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa,  on  the  wes- 
tern coast,  almost  every  place  designated  on  the  map  as  a  town, 
was  originally  and  generally  is  still  a  Real,  or  district  for  mines."' 

Such  is  the  case  with  a  multitude  of  other  mines  which  have 
formed  the  nucleii  of  population  in  Mexico.  They  created  a  mar- 
ket. The  men  who  were  at  work  in  the  vein,  required  the  labor 
of  men  on  the  surfoce,  for  their  support  and  maintenance.  Nor 
was  it  food  alone,  that  these  laborers  demanded.  All  kinds  of 
artizans  were  wanted,  and  consequently,  towns  as  well  as  farms 
grew  upon  every  side.  When  these  mining  dependencies  are  once 
formed,  as  Baron  Humboldt  justly  says,  they  often  survive  the 
mines  that  gave  them  birth ;  and  turn  to  agricultural  labors  for 
the  supply  of  other  districts  that  industry  which  was  formerly  de- 
voted solely  to  their  own  region. 

Such  are  some  of  the  internal  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
mining  in  Mexico,  especially  when  the  mines  are  well  and  scien- 
tifically wrought,  and  when  the  miners  are  kept  in  proper  order, 
well  paid,  and  consequently  enabled  to  purchase  the  best  supplies 
in  the  neighboring  markets.  The  mines  are,  in  fact,  to  Mexico, 
what  the  manufacturing  districts  are  to  England  and  the  United 
States  ;  and  they  must  be  considered  the  great  support  of  the  na- 
tional agricultural  interests  until  Mexico  becomes  a  commercial 
power,  and  sends  abroad  other  articles  besides  silver,  cochineal 
and  vainilla,  —  the  two  last  of  which  may  be  regarded  as  her  mon- 
opolies. The  operation  of  this  tempting  character  of  mines  or  of 
the  money  they  create  as  well  as  circulate,  is  exhibited  very  re- 
markably in  the  rapidity  with  which  the  shores  of  California  have 
been  covered  with  towns  and  filled  with  industrious  population. 

•  ■ 
1  Ward,  ut  antea. 


RELATIVE    PRODUCT    OF     SILVER    FOR    TEN    YEARS.  87 

The  tabular  statement  on  the  next  page  manifests  the  relative 
production,  and  improving  or  decreasing  productiveness,  of  the 
several  silver  districts  of  Mexico,  during  the  comparatively  pacific 
period  of  ten  years  antecedent  to  the  war  with  the  United  States 
which  commenced  in  1846.  \^Tiilst  that  contest  lasted  the  agri- 
cultural and  mineral  interests  and  industry  of  the  country  of  course 
suffered,  and,  consequently,  it  would  be  unfair  to  calculate  the 
metallic  yield  of  Mexico  upon  the  basis  of  that  epoch  or  of  the 
years  immediately  succeeding. 

From  the  table  it  will  be  seen — omitting  the  fractions  of  dol- 
lars and  of  marks  of  silver — that  the  whole  tax  collected  during 
these  ten  years  from  1835  to  1844,  amounted  to  |1, 988,799, 
imposed  on  15,911,194  marks  of  silver,  the  value  of  which  was 
$131,267,354;— the  mean  yield  of  tax  being  $198,889,  and  of 
the  silver^  1,591,119,  in  marks,  which,  estimated  at  the  rate  of 
eight  dollars  and  a  quarter,  per  mark,  amounts  to  $13,126,735 
annually. 

Comparing  the  first  and  second  periods  of  five  years,  we  find  a 
diflference  in  the  tax  in  favor  of  the  latter,  of  $113,130,  on  905,042 
marks  of  silver ;  showing  that  in  the  latter  period  $7,466,596  more 
were  extracted  from  the  Mexican  mines  than  during  the  former. 

If  we  adopt  the  decimal  basis  of  calculation  the  returns  show, 
approximately,  the  following  results  for  relative  productiveness  : 
In  Zacatecas,  33^V  per  ct.  In  Rosario,Cosala  and 


Guanajuato,  21^f 

San  Luis  Potosi,  7ff 

Pachuca,  6|| 

Guadalajara,  S^V 

Mexico,  4||- 

Durango,  4^f 

Guadabipe  y  Calvo,    3f  I 
Chihuahua  y  Jesus  )  .   , 
Maria,  3    *^ 


Mazatlan, 
Sombrerete, 
Parral, 
Zimapan, 
Alamos, 
Hermosillo, 
Oajaca, 
Tasco, 


2|f 

per 

cl 

2|| 

1/^ 

U 

U 

If 

^h 

15V 

These  statements  do  not  include  the  precious  metals  pro- 
duced in  Mexico,  which  were  either  clandestinely  disposed  of  or 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  of  luxury.  ^ 

>  See  report  of  the  Mexican  Minister  of  Foreign  Relations  for  1846,  at  page  139, 
of  Documentos  Jmtijicativos. 


88 


RELATIVE  PRODUCT  OF  SILVER. 


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YIELD    OF    THE    MINTS    SINCE    THE     CONQUEST.  89 

MINT    OF    MEXICO 

Comprised  in  four  sections :    1st,  coinage  of  gold  and  silver  from 
1690  to  1821 ;  2d,  from  1822  to  1829 ;  3d,  from  1830  to  1844; 
and  4th,  coinage  of  copper  only. 
1690  to  1822,  or,  in  132  years,  in  silver,  $1,574,931,650.. 1.. 10 
1733  to  1822,  .         .         .  gold,  60,018,880.. 0.. 00 

1822  to  1829,     ....     silver,  23,179,384.. 3.. 03 

"  "  ...  gold,  4,392,502..0..00 

1830  to  1844,     ....     silver,  18,829,250.. 4. .02 

"  "  ...  gold,  1, 430,258.. 0.. 00 

1814  to  1844,     ....     copper,  5,323,765..0..09 

Total,     ....      $1,688,105,960..2..00 
From  this  must  be  deducted  on  account  of 
recoinage,  &c.  &c.,  according  to  state- 
ment of  the  mint,  ....         12,195,941. .0..00 

$1,675,909,749.. 1.. 08 
And  to  this  last  sum  must  be  added  for 
gold  coinage  from  1609  to  1732,  not  in- 
cluded in  the  previous  statement,     .  .         24,237,766. .0.. 00 

Total  coinage  of  mint  in  the  city  of  Mexico 

to  1844, $1,700,147,515.. 1.. 08 

From  1535  to  1690  —  it  is  estimated  that 
there  were  coined  in  the  mint  of  Mexico 
alone ; 

Gold, $  31,000,000 

Silver, 620,000,000 

Total,  ....       651,000,000 

Add  the  preceding  result  from  1690  to  1844,        .         1,700,147,515 

Total  coinage  in  mint  of  city  of  Mexico 

from  1535  to  1844,  ....         $2,351,147,515 

MINT    OF    CHIHUAHUA 
Comprised  in  three  sections  :  1st,  coinage  of  silver  1811  lo  1814; 

2d,  of  silver  and  gold  from  1832  to  1844 ;  3d,  of  copper  only. 


1811  to  1814, 

silver. 

$3,603,660..0..00 

1832  to  1844,  . 

u 

.      3,026,215..3..08 

a                u 

gold. 

368,248..0..00 

1833  to  1835,  . 

.  copper. 

50,428.. 5..00 

Total, 3  $7,048,552.. 0.. 08 

^  These  calculations  are  made  in  dollars,  reales,  or  pieces  of  the  value  of  IS^ 
cents,  and  medios,  or  pieces  of  the  value  of  6|  cents. 
L 


90  YIELD     OF    MINTS. 

MINT    OF    DUR  AN  GO 

Comprised  in  two  sections  :   1st,  coinage,  from  1811  to  1829 ;  and 

2d,  1830  to  1844. 
1811  to  1829,       .         .        silver,       .         .       $10,046,503..4..00 
1830  to  1844,  .         .         .     "       .         .         .     11,769,410..3..09 
1830  to  1844,       .         .        gold,        .         .  1,986,069..3..06 

Total, $23,801,983..3..03 

MINT    OF    GUADALAJARA 

Comprised  in  four  sections  :  1st,  coinage  of  silver  and  gold  from 
1812  to  1821 ;  2d,  ditto  from  1822  to  1829 ;  3d,  ditto  1830  to 
1844 ;  4th,  of  copper. 


1812  to  1821,       . 

silver. 

$2,058,388..2..03 

u                u 

.  gold,    . 

61,581..!.. 03 

1822  to  1829,       , 

silver. 

5,619,384..4..00 

U                      C( 

.  gold,     . 

182,242..4..00 

1830  to  1844,       . 

silver, 

10,162,947..4..06 

i(                        IC 

.  gold,    . 

120,805.. 5..01 

1831  to  1836,       . 

copper,    . 
Total,      .     .     .     . 

61,217..4..06 

.       $18,266,567..!. .07 

MINT    OF    GUADALUPE    Y    CALVO 
Established  by  a  grant  of  congress  in  1840,  but  only  commenced 

$338,124 
95,004 


its  operations  in  1844. 

1844, 

silver. 

*'.... 

gold. 

Total, $433,128 

MINT    OF    GUANAJUATO 

Comprised  in  three  sections  :   1st,  coinage  from  1812  to  182!  ;  2d, 
silver  and  gold  from  1822  to  1829;  3d,  ditto  from  1830  to  1844. 


1812  to  1821, 

silver. 

$    602,575.. 0.. 00 

1822  to  1829,  . 

(C 

.      7,652,816. .5.. 00 

a                a 

.       gold, 

142,520.. 0..00 

1830  to  1844,  . 

.  silver, . 

.     42,742,850.. 0.. 00 

a                a 

.       gold. 
Total,       .     .     .     . 

4,228,180.. 0.. 00 

.      $55,368,941. .5..00 

MINT    OF    SOMBRERETE. 
1810  to  1812  inclusive,    .    coined  in  silver,    .    $1,561,249..2..00 


COINAGE    IN    1844. 
MINT    OF    SAN    LUIS    POTOSI 


91 


Comprised  in  three  sections  :   1st,  coinage  from  1827  to  1829  ;  2d, 
from  1830  to  1844;  and  3d,  copper. 


1827  to  1829, 
1830  to  1844, 
1827  to  1835, 


silver. 


copper. 


5  2,951,418..0..00 

15,580,010..2..00 

23,517..3..00 


Total $18,554,945..5..00 

MINT    OF    TLALPAM. 


1828,  1829  and  part  of  1830,  coined  in  silver, 
u  "  gold,  . 


$959,116..7..00 
203,544..0..00 


Total, $1,162,660..7..00 

MINT    OF    ZACATECAS 
Comprised  in  four  sections :  1st,  coinage  from  14th  of  November, 
1810  to  1820;  2d,  from  1821  to  1829;  3d,  from  1830  to  1844; 
and  4th,  copper. 


1810  to  1820, 
1821  to  1829, 
1830  to  1844, 
1821  to  1829, 


silver, 

(4 


copper, 


$14,450,943..6..00 

31,838,470..4..00 

74,085,951. .7..00 

107,949.. 4.. 00 


Total, $120,483,315..5..00 


TABLE  of  the  Gold  and  Silver  coined  in  the  eight  Mints  of  the  Mexi- 
can Republic  from  1st  January,  1844,  to  1st  January,  1845,  according 
to  official  reports. 


Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guadalajara 

Guadalupe  y  Calvo. 

Guanajuato 

Mexico 

San  Luis  Potosi 

Zacatecas 


Totals 


$61,632..0..0 

27,508..0..0 

5,282.. 5. .1 

95,004. .0..0 

441,  808. .0  .0 
36,172..0..0 


^667,406.-5. .1 


*290,000..0.. 

213,362..3.. 

950,032.. 6.. 

338,124..0.. 
4,219,900. .0.. 
1,688, 156..4.. 

936,525..5.. 
4,429,353.. 4.. 


13,065,454. .6. .11 


*351,632..0..0 
240,870..3..0 
9.55,315.. 3. .4 
433,128..0..0 

4,661,708.  0..0 

1,724,328.. 4.. 8 
936,525.. 5..0 

4,429,353.. 4. .0 


P3,732,861..4..0 


92 


COINAGE. 


COURAGE  of  Mexico  from  1535  io  1849,  inclusive,  omitting  the  frac- 
tions of  a  dollar. 


MINTS. 

SILVER. 

GOLD. 

COPPER. 

TOT.\L. 

1535  to  1690. 
City  of  Mexico 

1690  to  1844. 
City  of  Mexico 

1811  to  1844. 
Chihuahua  

$620,000,000 

1,606,225,922 

6,629,875 

21,815,913 

17,840,720 

338,124 

50,998,241 

18,531,428 

1,561,249 

959,116 

120,375,366 

P  1,000,000 

88,597,827 

368,248 

1,986,069 

364,629 

95,004 

4,370,700 

$651,000,000 

1,700,147,514 

7,048,551 

23,801,982 

18,266,566 

433,128 

55,368,941 

18,554,945 

1,561,249 

1,162,660 

120,483,315 

70,000,000 

$5,323,765 
50,428 

1811  to  1844. 
Durango 

1812  to  1844. 

Guadalajara 

1844. 
Guadalupe  y  Calvo. . 

61,217 

1812  to  1844. 
Guanajuato 

1827  to  1844. 
San  Luis  Potosi 

23,517 

1810,  1811,  and  1812. 
Sonibrerete 

1828,  1829,  and  18.30. 
Tlalpam 

203,544 

1810  to  1844. 
Zacatecas 

107,949 

All      the     Mexican 
mints,  from  the  end 
of  1844  to  the  end 
of  1849,  at  the  rate 

of  j^l4, 000,000  per 
annum,  which  was 
the  approximate  to- 
tal coinage  in  1844 ' 

Totals 

$2,465,275,954 

$126,986,021 

$5,566,876 

$2,667,828,851 

RESUME 


Silver  coinage  from  1535  to  1844,  inclusive  .  $2,465,275,954 

Gold  do  1535  to  1844,        do  .        126,986,021 

Copper         do  1811  to  1844,        do  .  5,566,876 

General  coinage,  from  1845  to  1849,  both  inclusive  70,000,000 


Total  coinage  of  Mexico  to  present  time,  or  in 

314  years $2,667,828,851 

Or,  avoiding  fractions,  nearly  $8,500,000  yearly.  ~ 

'  The  actual  coinage  of  all  the  mints  in  the  republic  in  1844  amounted,  in  fact,  to 
the  sum  of  $13,732,861 ;  but  we  assume  $14,000,000  as  a  fair  annual  average  for  a 
period  of  several  years. 


CHAPTER    VII. 


income  of  new  spain  1809 expenses  of  new  spain  1809. 

mineral   productions military   force agriculture 

manufactures.  commerce  exports  imports.  pre- 
sent   commerce imports exports. nineteen   years 

trade  between  the  united  states  and  mexico. charac- 
ter of  imports character  of  exports silver  exported. 

fairs  in  mexico. the  future  prospects  and  position 

of  mexico not  a  commercial  country. railway  from 

fera  cruz  to  the  city  of  mexico. 

Financial  and  Productive  Condition  of  Mexico  or  New 
Spain  before  her  Revolution,  and  at  the  Present  Day. 

In  order  to  exhibit  a  connected  and  comparative  view  of  the 
financial  and  commercial  condition  of  Mexico,  we  have  assembled 
in  this  section  a  number  of  tables  which  exhibit,  at  a  glance,  the  state 
of  New  Spain  in  relation  to  her  mines,  agriculture,  manufactures, 
commerce,  and  the  income  and  expenses  of  the  viceroyalty  in  1809. 

Tabular  Statistical  View  of  the  Income  and  Expenses 
OF  THE  Viceroyalty  of  Mexico  in  1809,  antecedent  to 
THE  Revolution  —  Its  Mines,  Agriculture,  Manufac- 
tures and  Commerce. 

1st.  Income. 

Branches  of  income.  Clear  product  in  dollars. 


Duties  on  assay,  .... 

"       on  gold  and  bullion, 

"      on  silver,  .... 

"       on  vajilla,     .  .         .          .       "  . 

Coining  of  gold  and  silver, 

Tributes,         ...... 

Taxes,  (alcabalas)       .... 

Pulque,  (a  national  beverage  made  of  aloe,) 
Powder,     ...... 

Lotteries,        ...... 

Novenos,  ..... 

Saleable  and  remisable  offices, 
Stamped  paper,  .... 

Medias  anatas.        ..... 

Amount  carried  forward. 


]      72,506 

24,908 

2,086,565 

25,716 

1,628,259 

1,159,951 

2,644,618 

750,462 

370,829 

109,002 

192,333 

27,106 

64,900 

37,338 

59,174,493 


94 


EXPENSES    OF    NEW    SPAIN    1809. 


Amount  brought  forward,          .... 

.    ^9,174,493 

Chancery,            ...... 

1,035 

Cock  fights,            .         .         .    •    . 

33,322 

Liquor  shops,     ...... 

22,883 

Ice, 

31,814 

Salt  works  and  duties  on  salt, 

132,982 

Licenses  for  ballast  in  Vera  Cruz,    . 

29 

Bakeries,  liquor  shops  in    do. 

11,989 

Fortifications, 

8,003 

Donations,          ...... 

1,480 

do.     for  war  purposes,     .... 

646,459 

Caldos, 

36,181 

Dyes  and  vainilla, 

45,740 

Alraojarifazgos,           ..... 

275,894 

Aprovecharaientos,           ..... 

57,967 

Small  incomes,            ..... 

76,151 

Balances  of  accounts, 

24,989 

Bulls  of  Santa  Cruzada,  (  Roman  Catholic, ) 

271,828 

Ecclesiastical  tithes,        ..... 

30,320 

do.            subsidies,      .... 

4,686 

Medias  anatas  y  mesadas  id,  . 

50,540 

Vacantes  mayores  y  menores. 

112,733 

Spanish  quicksilver,        ..... 

474,722 

German         "             .         .         .         . 

42,583 

Freight  of  quicksilver, 

2,757 

Cards,       ....... 

148,861 

Tobacco, 

.       3,927,822 

4  per  cent,  of  salary  of  employes, 

25,632 

,     Gross  income,     .... 

.     $15,693,895 

From  this  should  be  deducted  for  salaries  and  " 
expenses  of  administration,     .      ,^596,260 

For  donations  received  this  year,  but  which 
should  not  be  counted  as  income,  $647,939 


1,244,199 


Net  income, $14,449,696 

2d.  Expenses  in  the  year  1809. 

Expenses  of  fortification, $800,000 

Pay  of  army,   veteran  troops,   arsenal   of  San  Bias,  )  „  n^^  Q^r. 
powder  factories  and  other  expenses,       .         .  ^    ?       j  '-'^ 


Amount  carried  forward. 


13,800,000 


MINERAL    PRODUCTIONS. 


95 


Amount  brought  forward,  .... 

Pay  of  Oidores,  and  other  persons  employed  in  judi- 
cial functions  and  measures  for  the  conversion  of 
the  Indians,       ....... 

Pensions,  ........ 

Hospital  expenses,  repairs  of  factories,  . 

Return  of  imposts,  ...... 


Amount  of  Income, 
"       "  Expenses, 


$14,449,696 
6,146,800 


$3,800,000 

250,000 

200,000 

.    400,800 

1,496,000 

$6,146,800 


Balance, $8,302,896 

This  was  then  the  clear  income  of  Mexico  in  the  year  1809. 
The  same  amount  may  be  considered  as  the  usual  yearly  revenue 
from  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  if  we  deduct  a  half 
of  this  sum  as  being  afterwards  expended  on  this  side  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, it  may  be  calculated  that  about  four  milhons  of  dollars  were 
transmitted  to  Spain  annually. 

3d.  Mineral  Productions. 
In  order  to  judge  what  regions  of  New  Spain  were  most  pro- 
ductive in  mineral  wealth  and  their  relative  productiveness,  we  will 
insert  the  value  of  the  royal  dues  upon  silver,  amounting  in  all  to 
the  rate  of  10|  per  cent,  in  1795,  in  w^hich  year  $24,593,481  were 
coined  in  gold  and  silver  at  the  Mexican  mint. 
San  Luis  Potosi,         .         .         .         96,000  ] 


Zacatecas,    . 

Guanajuato, 

Rosario, 

Bolaiios, 

Mexico, 

Guadalajara, 

Durango, 

Zimapan, 

Sombrerete, 

Chihuahua, 


30,000  quintals  of  quicksilver,  w 


69,000 
67,000 
45,000 
41,000 
36,000 
19,000 
33,000 
10,000 
7,000 
7,000  J 


of  silver, — 


Marks 
which  may  be  esti- 
mated at  eight  dol- 
lars and  a  quarter 
per  mark. 


All  the   mines  in   the   Spanish  possessions  consumed  annually 


lich,  at  the  rate  of  $50,  (at  which 


they  might  be  calculated,  on  an  average  of  years,)  amounts  to  a 
million  and  a  half. 

When  fifteen  millions  were  annually  coined  the  king  received  6 
per  ct.  upon  that  sura ;  and  when  the  amount  exceeded  18  millions, 
scarcely  7.  This  difference  was  owing  to  the  rules  and  system  of 
the  mint,  in  which  there  were  the  same  expenses  in  coining  from 


96  MILITARY    FORCE AGRICULTURE MANUFACTURES. 

twenty  to  twenty-four  millions  that  were  incurred  in  coining  fifteen 
millions.  In  1809  $26,172,982  were  issued,  in  gold  and  silver, 
from  the  Mexican  mint,  and  this,  with  the  exception  of  1804  and 
1805,  is  the  largest  amount  of  coinage  either  under  the  Vice- 
royal  or  Republican  government. 

4th.  MiTiTARY  Force  before  the  Revolution. 

Veteran  troops,  ..... 

Garrison  troops  and  viceroyal  guards,     . 
Garrison  troops  and  guards.     Internal  prov- 
inces, ....... 

Provincial  militia,  ..... 


The  maintenance  of  these  cost  annually. 
The  fort  of  St.  Carlos  at  Perot6  absorbed. 
Costs  of  fortifications  and  casual  expenses, 


5th.  Agriculture. 

This  branch  of  industry  produced  a  sum  equal  to  the  mines  ;  that 
is  to  say  —  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-four  millions.  The  follow- 
ing calculation  is  founded  upon  the  basis  of  the  diezmos  or  tithes 
of  the  several  bishoprics,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  best 
territorial  measure. 
Bishoprics.  Product  of  Agriculture  in  1790.  Diezmos. 


7,083 
595 

3,099 

18,884 

29,661 

$1,800,000 

200,000 

2,000,000 

$4,000,000 

Mexico,     . 

Puebla, 

Valladolid,  . 

Oajaca, 

Guadalajara, 

Durango, 

$8,500,000      . 
.       4,400,000 

4,000,000      . 
.     1,000,000 

3,400,000      . 
.     1,200,000 

850,000 
.     440,000 

400,000 
.      100,000 

340,000 
.      120,000 

In  6  Bishoprics, 

$22,500,000 
6th.  Manufactures. 

.  2,250,000 

The  cotton  and  woollen  factories,  of  the  most  important  and  ex- 
tensive character,  were  those  of  Puebla  and  of  Queretaro.  In  the 
latter  place,  in  twenty  factories,  and  300  small  establishments, 
46,000  arrobas  of  wool  were  consumed,  out  of  which  6,000  pieces 
of  cloth,  or,  226,000  varas  (yards);  —  280  pieces  of  jerguetilla  or 
39,000  yards  (varas);  —  200  pieces  of  baize,  or,  15,000  varas; 
161  pieces  of  baizes  and  coarse  woollens,-  or,  18,000  varas ;  the 


COMMERCE 


EXPORTS 


IMPORTS. 


97 


value  of  all  which  manufactures  exceeded  $600,000.  In  Queretaro 
there  were  moreover  consumed  200,000  lbs.  of  cotton  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  stuffs  and  rebosos,  or  shawls  usually  worn  by  the 
women  throughout  Mexico.  The  factories  in  the  Intendency  of 
Puebla,  comprehended  in  that  city,  Cholula,  Tlascala  and  Guejo- 
cingo,  produced  fabrics,  in  peaceful  times,  to  the  value  of  a  million 
and  a  half  of  dollars.  Besides  these  there  were  other  factories  in 
various  parts  of  the  country. 

7th.   Commerce. 

The  imports  through  Vera  Cruz,  before  the  war,  aver- 
aging one  year  with  another,  exceeded,  .  .  $19,000,000 
The  exports,  inclusive  of  silver,      ....       21,000,000 

Difference  in  favor  of  exports,     ....  2,000,000 

Total  of  mercantile  exchanges,       ....       40,000,000 

The  above  exportations  may  be  divided  into  — 

Silver, $14,000,000 

Agricultural  products,         ....  7,000,000 


Classification  of  Exports. 


Weig-ht  in  arrobas. 

Cochineal,     . 

24,500     . 

Sugar,      . 

.  500,000 

Vainilla, 

•                  •           •                  • 

Indigo,     . 

.     60,000 

Sarsaparilla, 

20,000     . 

Pepper  from  Tabasco, 

.       24,000 

Flour, 

•         ... 

Tanned  leather, 

... 

Sundries,     . 

•       •        •         • 

Add  export  of  precious  metals. 


Value  in  dollars 

$1,715,000 

1,500,000 

60,000 

2,700,000 

90,000 

.  40,000 

.   500,000 

.  80,000 

.   315,000 


$7,000,000 
14,000,000 

$21,000,000 


M 


\fi 

COMMERCE EXPORTS  IMPORTS. 

Classification  of   Imports. 

Wine,    . 

25  to  30,000  barrels 

$1,000,000 

Paper, 

125,000  reams,     . 

375,000 

Cinnamon,      .         .       100,000  lbs.    . 

.     400,000 

Brandy, 

32,000  barrels,  . 

.       1,000,000 

Saffron, 

17,000  lbs.     . 

.      350,000 

Iron, 

.     50,000  quintals, 

600,000 

Steel,     . 

6,000        " 

110,000 

Wax, 

.    26,000  arrobas. 

500,000 

Cacao,  . 

20,000  fanegas,     . 

.     1,100,000 

Clothing, 

hardware  and  other  manufactures,     . 

.       14,000,000 

$19,335,000 

From  a  statement  published  by  the  Consulado  of  Vera  Cruz 
it  appears  that  the  Importation  from  Spain  in  1802  was  as 
follows :  — 

In  national  vessels,      .         .         .         $11'539,219  )  ^^g  ^00,000 
In  foreign         "  ...         8,060,781  ^  ^     '       ' 

Exportation  in  the  same  year,     ....       33,866,219 

Difference  in  favor  of  exports,     ....         $14,266,219 

Commerce  of  the  metropolis,      ....         $53,466,219 

Importation  from  America,    .....       $1,607,792 
Exportation  for  " 4,581,148 

General  importation      ...  .     $21,207,792 

General  exportation,  ....  38,447,367 

Total  trade  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1802,  .         .  $59,655,159^ 

From  this  view  of  the  anti-revolutionary  condition  of  Mexican 
commerce  and  financial  interests,  we  pass  properly  to  the  examina- 
tion of  the  same  affairs  at  the  present  day.  In  order  to  judge  this 
subject  fairly,  however,  we  have  adopted  the  commercial  standard 
of  the  year  preceding  the  war  with  the  United  States.  During  and 
since  that  period,  the  commercial  results  of  the  country  must  natur- 
ally have  been  so  greatly  disturbed  as  to  afford  altogether  inade- 
quate tests. 

'  Zavala's  Historia  de  las  Kevoluciones  de  Mejico.    Tomo  1. 


PRESENT    COMMERCE 


IMPORTS 


EXPORTS. 


99 


Commerce  at  the  Present  Day. 

Imports  and  exports  of  the  Mexican  republic  for  the  year  ending 
on  the  1st  of  January,  1845,  calculated  on  the  duties  collected  at 
the  maritime  and  frontier  custom  houses. 


1st.  Imports. 


Duties  according^  to  tariff. 

At  40  per  ct.,  there  were  collected, 
"  30       "  "  " 


"  30 

provisions, 

"  30 

timber. 

"  25 

.         .         . 

•'  12^ 

. 

"     6 

jewelry, 

30 

advanced  to  the  trea- 

sury  for 

permission  to  import  20,000 

quintals 

of  cotton, 

Duties  collected. 

$  200..45 

5,999,282.-87 

14,592.-98 

3,539..49 

152,916..18 

6,190..11 

1,171..22 


120,000.-00 


Capital  or  value  of 
imported  articles  to 
which  these  duties 
correspond. 

$  501..12 

19,997,609-56 
48,643-26 
11,774..96 
611,664-72 
49,520-83 
19,520..33 


400,000-00 


$6,297,886-30      $21,139,234-83 


2d.  Exports. 

Export 
Duties  according  to  tariff.  duties  collected. 

At  6  per  cent-,  on  export  of  gold  and 

silver  coin,       .       $524,349-63^ 


3^  "  on  silver  coin,    .     . 

5  "  on  uncoined  silver, 

7  "  in  Vera  Cruz  on  ditto, 

7^  "  in  Mazatlan       " 

9  "  at       do.        on  gold, 

9^  "  on  silver, 

6^  "  on  wrought  gold, 

7  "  on  wrought  silver,  . 

6  "  on  dye  wood, 


2-08 

22,949-23 

12,687-60 

103,636-81 

14,479-141 

48-59 

22-36 

658..11 

6,025..14 


Resum6  No.  1. 

Export  of  money,  .  .  .  $524,351-71^ 
"  of  uncoined  gold  and  silver,  153,801.-37^ 
"        of  wrought  gold  and  silver,  6,680.-47 


Value  of  exports  to 
which  these  du- 
ties correspond. 


i8,739, 160-58 

59-42 

458,984-45 

181,251-42 

1,381,824-13 

160,879-39 

511-39 

344-00 

9,401-57 

100,419-00 


$8,739,220.-00 

2,183,450-79 

9,745-57 


Total  export  of  the  precious  metals, 
Export  of  dye  woods, 


$678,833-56 
6,025-14 


110,932,416-36 
100,419-00 


Total, $684,858..70       $11,032,835..36 


100     trade   between  the  united  states  and  mexico. 

Comparative  Resum^  No.  2. 

Value  of  the  imports  into  the  republic,         .         .         $21, 139, 234. .83 
"         "       exports  from  the  republic,  .         .         .       11,032,835..36 

Excess  of  imports  above  exports,         .         .         .         $10, 106,399. .47 
Comparative  Resume  No.  3. 

Duties.  Value  of  Articles. 

Imports,  ....         $6,297,686..30     $21,139,234..86 

Deduct  $557,76..  16  charged  to  the 
V^era  Cruz  custom  house  for  in- 
come of  previous  years  not  col- 
lected in  1844,  and  which  sum 
is  calculated  on  30  per  cent, 
duties, 557,767..16         1,859,223..86 


),739,919..14     $19,280,011..00 


Value  of  exports  deducted,  ....  11, 032,835. .36 


Effective  excess  of  imports  in  1844,         .         .         .  $8,247, 175. .64 

Comparative  Resume  No.  4. 

There  were  coined  in  the  Mexican  mints  in  1844,    .  $13, 732,861. .04 

There  were  exported  in  money,  ....  8,739,220.-00 


Difference  in  favor  of  the  mint,         ....     $4,993,6<41..04 


As  the  commercial  relations  of  the  United  States  with  Mexico, 
of  course  concern  us  most  intimately,  and  are  those  in  which  we 
take  the  deepest  interest,  we  have  formed  from  official  data  in  the 
reports  of  our  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury  the  following  table  of  our 
mercantile  intercourse  from  1829  to  1849  : 

Commerce  between  Mexico  and  the  United   States  from 

1829  TO  1849. 

Imports  from  Mexico.     Exports  to  Mexico 

For  year  ending  30th  Sept.,  1829  $5,026,761  $2,331,151 

1830  5,235,241  4,837,458 

1832  4,293,954  3,467,541 

1833  5,452,818  5,408,091 

1834  8,066,068  5,265,053 

1835  9,490,446  9,029,221 

1836  5,615,819  6,041,635 

1837  5,654,002  3,880,323 

1838  3,127,153  2,787,362 


CHARACTER    OF    IMPORTS.  101 

Imports  from  Mexico.     Exports  to  Mexico. 

For  year  ending  30th  Sept.,  1839  3,500,707  2,164,097 

"     "       "   1840    4,175,001      2,515,341 

"     "       "   1841     3,484,957      2,036,620 

«     "       "   1842     1,996,694      1,534,233 

Last  quarter  of  '42  and  first 

two  quarters  of  1843  2,782,406  1,471,937 

ForyearendingSOth  June,  1844  2,387,002  1,794,833 

«  "  "     1845  1,702,936  1,152,331 

"       war  year,  "     1846  1,836,621  1,531,180 

"       war  year,  "     1847  481,749  238,004 

"  "  "     1848  1,581,247  4,054,452 

By  this  table,  covering  the  commerce  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico  for  nineteen  years,  we  observe  that  from  having  a  trade 
worth,  in  imports  and  exports,  about  nineteen  millions  and  a  half, 
in  1835,  it  is  now  reduced,  in  years  undisturbed  by  war  or  the  re- 
sults of  war,  to  not  more  than  two  millions  and  a  half  or  three 
millions.  As  commerce  usually  regulates  itself,  in  spite  of  per- 
sonal or  national  prejudices,  this  fact  is  doubtless  attributable  to 
the  lower  rates  at  which  European  manufacturers  and  producers 
are  enabled  to  afford  their  merchandise  in  the  Mexican  market. 
Nevertheless,  we  doubt  not  that  the  trade  might  be  improved  con- 
siderably by  certain  modifications  of  the  tariff,  especially  upon  the 
article  of  cotton,  which  as  will  be  seen  in  our  notices  of  the  manu- 
facturing establishments  of  Mexico  is  largely  demanded  from 
abroad  in  consequence  of  the  failure  from  personal  causes  to  pro- 
duce an  adequate  supply  within  that  republic. 

The  Imports  of  Mexico  consist  chiefly  of  the  following  articles : 

Linens  ;  five-eighths  of  which  are  received  from  Germany,  while 
three-eighths  are  of  Irish,  Dutch,  French  and  North  American 
manufacture.  The  German  linens  are  chiefly  obtained  from  Silesia, 
and  the  finest  kinds  are  in  great  demand. 

Cotton  goods  are  imported  largely  from  England,  the  United 
States  and  France. 

The  importation  of  the  best  qualities  of  silks  reaches  annually 
about  one  million  of  dollars  in  value,  and  they  are  the  productions 
of  France  and  Germany ;  about  three-fourths  of  the  trade,  in  this 
article,  belonging  exclusively  to  France. 

For  her  Woollen  fabrics  Mexico  relies  upon  England  and 
France,  though  Germany  participates  in  the  importation  of  some 
qualities. 

Ornamental  Wares,  Millinery  or  articles  of  personal  and 
fashionable  luxury  are  obtained  from  France. 


102  CHARACTER    OF    EXPORTS  SILVER    EXPOBTED. 

Genoa  and  Bordeaux  furnish  Paper;  —  Glassware,  window 
glass  and  looking  glasses  are  imported  from  the  United  States, 
England  and  France,  but  the  finer  kinds  are  exceedingly  rare  and 
costly,  in  consequence  of  the  risk  of  transportation  through  the 
country  by  the  present  imperfect  modes  of  carriage  over  bad  roads. 
Iron  ware,  of  all  kinds,  and  iron  machinery  for  manufacturing  or 
mining  purposes,  are  imported  from  the  United  States,  England, 
France,  Germany  and  Spain. 

Quicksilver,  one  of  the  most  important  articles  for  the  miners, 
is  brought  in  French  and  Italian  ships  from  Idria  and  Almaden. 
Wine,  Brandy  and  Gin  are  consumed  from  France,  Germany, 
Spain,  Portugal  and  Holland ;  while  fine  liqueurs  are  largely  im- 
ported from  France  and  the  Dutch  West  Indies. 

Cacao  is  imported  from  several  of  the  Southern  American  na- 
tions ;  —  Oil  from  France,  Gibraltar  and  Genoa  ;  —  and  Wax,  of 
which  about  700,000  dollars  worth  is  annually  consumed,  is  re- 
ceived from  the  United  States  or  Cuba.  Salted  and  dried  Fish  or 
Flesh  is  chiefly  monopolized  by  our  traders. 

The  principal  Exports  from  Mexico  have  always  been  and  still 
are.  Cochineal,  and  the  Precious  Metals  in  bars  and  coined. 
Of  the  latter  of  these  native  products  it  is  estimated  by  reliable  au- 
thorties  that  one  half  is  remitted  to  England  and  that  the  balance  is 
divided  between  the  United  States  and  the  continental  states  of 
Europe.  The  greater  portion  of  silver  is  exported  from  Tampico, 
which  is  the  nearest  vent  for  the  mineral  wealth  of  Guanajuato, 
Zacatecas,  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  the  principal  mining  districts  of 
northern  Mexico.  Large  sums  are  also  sent  from  Vera  Cruz  and 
from  Mazatlan  on  the  western  coast,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference 
to  our  tabular  statement  of  the  value  of  exports.  In  1845,  before 
the  war  with  the  United  States  broke  out,  and  when  Mexican  trade 
was  in  its  ordinary  condition,  ten  millions  nine  hundred  and  thirty- 
two  thousand  four  hundred  and  sixteen  dollars  worth  of  the  pre- 
cious metals,  coined  and  uncoined,  left  these  several  ports  through 
the  regular  channels.  But  as  we  have  no  means  of  exactly  esti- 
mating the  contraband  exportation,  which  is  very  large,  we  may 
safely  calculate  that  at  least  five  millions  more  found  their  way 
clandestinely  to  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Of  the  regular 
and  lawful  exportation,  eight  millions  seven  hundred  and  thirty- 
nine  thousand  two  hundred  and  twenty  dollars  were  coined  ;  two 
millions  one  hundred  and  eighty-three  thousand  four  hundred  and 
fifty,  in  uncoined  gold  and  silver ;  and  nine  thousand  seven  hundred 
and  forty-five,  in  wrought  silver  and  gold. 


FAIRS    IN    MEXICO.  103 

The  exportation  of  Cochineal  is  estimated  to  range  from  seven 
hundred  thousand  to  one  million  of  dollars  worth  ;  —  and,  when 
we  add  to  these  articles,  Dye  wood,  Vainilla,  Sarsaparilla,  Jalap, 
Hides,  horns,  and  a  small  quantity  of  Pepper,  Indigo,  and  Coffee, 
together  with  an  occasional  invoice  of  sugar  sent  from  the  west 
coast  to  Columbia  and  Peru,  we  may  consider  the  list  of  mer- 
chantable Mexican  exports  as  completely  ended. 

In  all  the  Mexican  towns  and  cities,  and  in  many  of  the  large 
villages  there  are  weekly  markets  held  at  which  a  considerable 
trade  for  the  neighborhood  is  carried  on ;  and,  in  addition  to  these, 
there  are  nine  great  Fairs  at  which  immense  quantities  of  foreign 
manufactures  are  disposed  of.  These  are  held  at  the  following 
places  and  times  : 

1.  The  Fair  at  Aguas-.  Calientes — begins  on  the  20th  of  Novem- 
ber and  lasts  10  days. 

2.  The  Fair  at  AUende  in  Chihuahua  —  begins  on  the  4th  of 
October,  and  lasts  8  days. 

3.  The  Fair  at  Chilapa  in  Mexico  —  begins  on  the  2d  of  Jan- 
uary, and  lasts  8  days. 

4.  The  Fair  at  Chilpanzingo  —  begins  on  the  21st  of  December, 
and  lasts  8  days. 

5.  The  Fair  at  Huejutla  —  begins  on  the  24th  of  December,  and 
lasts  4  days. 

6.  The  Fair  at  Ciudad  Guerrero — begins  on  the  12th  of  Decem- 
ber, and  lasts  6  days. 

7.  The  Fair  at  Saltillo  —  begins  on  the  29th  of  September,  and 
lasts  8  days. 

8.  The  Fair  at  San  Juan  de  los  Lagos  —  begins  on  the  5th 
of  December,  and  lasts  8  days. 

9.  The  Fair  at  Tenancingo  —  begins  on  the  6th  of  February, 
and  lasts  10  days. 

It  will  not  be  considered  singular  w^hen  we  recollect  the  colonial 
and  subsequent  revolutionary  history  of  Mexico,  that  she  has  not 
fostered  her  shipping  and  become  a  commercial  country.  The 
original  emigration  to  New  Spain  was  not  maritime  in  its  charac- 
ter. The  Spanish  trade  was  carried  on  by  the  mother  country  in 
Spanish  vessels  exclusively,  and  these  ships  were  not  owned  by  or 
permitted  to  become  the  permanent  property  of  the  colonists.  The 
settlers  who  emigrated  retired  from  the  coasts  to  the  interior  where 
their  interests  either  in  the  soil,  cities,  or  mines,  immediately  ab- 
sorbed their  attention.     It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  Indians, 


104        THE    FUTURE    PROSPECTS    AND    POSITION    OF    MEXICO. 

who  could  scarcely  be  converted  into  agriculturists,  would  engagr 
in  the  more  dangerous  life  of  sailors.  The  whole  industry  of  the 
foreign  population  was  thus  diverted  at  once  from  the  sea  board, 
and  the  consequence  was,  that  notwithstanding  the  territory  of 
New  Spain  is  bounded  on  the  east  and  west  by  the  two  great 
oceans  of  the  world,  those  oceans  never  became  the  nurses  of  a 
hardy  race  of  mariners  whose  labors  would,  in  time,  have  fostered 
the  internal  productiveness  of  their  country  by  creating  a  com- 
merce. We  are  not  astonished,  therefore,  to  find  that  the  whole 
marine  of  Mexico,  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf,  is  confined  to  a  petty 
coasting  trade  from  port  to  port,  and  that  her  sea-going  people  are 
rather  fishermen  than  sailors.  On  the  west  coast,  however,  the 
maritime  character  of  the  people  has  somewhat  improved,  and  a 
very  considerable  trade  has  been  carried  on  by  Mexican  vessels,  in 
native  productions,  not  only  with  Central  America,  Columbia,  Peru 
and  Chili,  but  even  with  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

The  geographical  position  of  Mexico,  when  considered  in  con- 
nexion with  its  agricultural  riches  and  metallic  wealth,  is  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  in  the  world.  A  comparatively  narrow  strip 
of  land,  possessing  all  the  climates  of  the  world,  is  placed  midway 
between  the  two  great  bodies  of  the  northern  and  southern  con- 
tinents of  America,  and  midway,  also,  between  the  continents  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  In  its  central  region  it  extends  only  five  or 
six  hundred  miles  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  while,  at 
its  southern  end,  it  is  swiftly  crossed  by  means  of  its  rivers  or  by 
railways,  which,  it  is  alleged,  may  be  easily  constructed.  In  the 
midst  of  this  unrivalled  territory,  in  the  lap  of  the  great  plateau  or 
table  land,  and  far  removed  from  unhealthy  coasts,  lies  the  beauti- 
ful city  of  Mexico,  a  natural  focus  of  commerce,  wealth  and  civili- 
zation. Such  a  picture  of  natural  advantages  cannot  but  strike  us 
with  admiration  and  hope.  If  ever  there  was  a  capital  destined  by 
nature  to  form  the  centre  of  a  great  nation,  if  not  to  grasp  at  least 
a  large  share  of  the  North  American,  European,  South  American 
and  Oriental  trade,  it  unquestionably  is  the  city  of  Mexico.  Raised 
as  she  is  far  above  the  level  of  the  sea  and  inaccessible  by  rivers,  the 
development  of  her  destiny  may  be  postponed  until  genius  shall 
inlay  her  valleys  and  ravines  with  railways,  and  thus  connect  her 
forever  with  the  two  coasts.  But  can  we  doubt  that  this  me- 
chanical miracle  will  be  performed  ?  It  is  not  for  us  to  say  whether 
it  shall  be  the  work  of  the  present  generation,  or  of  the  present  race 
in  Mexico.  It  seems  to  be  the  law  of  nature  that  nations,  like 
men,  must  advance  or  be  trodden  under  foot.     The  vast  array  of 


NOT    A    COMMERCIAL    COUNTRY.  105 

industrious  mankind  is  ever  marching.  Nor  can  we  doubt  that 
unless  Mexico  learns  wisdom  from  the  past,  and,  abandoning  the 
paltry  political  strife  which  has  hitherto  crushed  her  industrial 
energy,  follows  in  the  footsteps  of  modern  civilization,  her  fate  will 
be  sure  and  speedy.  The  attention  of  the  world  is  now  riveted 
upon  this  region  as  the  natural  mistress  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 
If  Mexico  covers  the  eastern  and  western  slopes  of  her  Cordillera 
with  an  intelligent,  progressive  and  peaceful  population,  invited 
from  abroad  to  amalgamate  with  her  own  races  under  the  opera- 
tion of  permanent  laws  and  wholesome  government,  the  change 
may  be  slow  and  her  power  may  be  preserved.  But  if  she  will 
persist  in  the  mad  career  of  folly  whicbhas  characterized  her  since 
her  independence,  she  will  not  be  able  to  resist  the  gradual  and 
inevitable  encroachments  from  the  north,  from  Europe,  and  from 
the  new  establishments  which  are  rapidly  growing  up  on  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama.  These  new  foundations,  based  on  the  incalculable 
wealth  of  California  will  be  fostered  by  means  hitherto  undreamed 
of  in  the  wildest  commerce  of  the  world,  and  unless  Mexico  shall 
avail  herself  of  their  salutary  monitions  they  will  finally  absorb  both 
her  people  and  her  nationality. 

RAELWAY  FROM  VERA  CRUZ  TO  THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 

Note. — In  relation  to  the  various  modes  of  transit  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
or  Tehuantepec,  we  do  not  deem  it  advisable  to  offer  any  speculations,  at  present, 
(April,  1850.)  When  reconnaissances  of  both  routes  have  been  completed  and  pub- 
lished, under  the  sanction  of  able  and  disinterested  engineers,  the  world,  which  is 
so  largely  concerned  in  this  subject,  will  be  better  able  to  decide  as  to  their  relative 
advantages.  Both  routes  may  ultimately  be  required,  when  the  augmented  com- 
merce of  the  west  coast  of  North  and  South  America  and  the  East  Indies  demands  a 
speedy  access  to  those  regions.  In  the  meantime,  however,  I  subjoin  the  following 
extract  from  a  report  made  by  an  officer  of  our  army,  during  the  war  with  Mexico, 
whilst  our  forces  were  still  occupying  the  capital,  in  March,  1848.  It  apparently 
demonstrates  at  least  the  practicability  of  a  railway  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  valley: 

"Of  the  different  routes  proposed,  the  one  following  the  ridge  which  separates 
the  towns  or  the  two  rivers  of  Tomepa  and  Obatejua,  passing  near  or  through  the 
towns  or  villages  of  Acanisica,  St.  Bartolome,  St.  Martin,  Nopalpica,  and  Tlascala, 
is  not  only  the  shortest  and  most  level,  but  offers  the  fewest  difficulties  to  overcome. 
This  route  does  not  offer  the  slightest  obstruction,  with  the  exception  of  crossing 
the  river  San  Juan,  till  you  reach  the  Boca  del  Monte,  seventeen  leagues  from  Vera 
Cruz  ;  thence  pursuing  its  course  along  the  sides  of  the  same  almost  continuous 
ridge,  with  an  ascent  of  not  more  than  one  upon  fifty,  till  you  reach  the  deep  Bar- 
ranca of  Chichiquila,  twenty-three  leagues  from  Vera  Cruz  ;  the  road  is  thence 
across  tke  Barranca,  on  embankments  and  stone  walls,  the  materials  for  this  pur- 
pose being  plentiful  and  on  the  ground;  the  ten  leagues  from  the  Barranca  of  Chi- 
chiquila to  the  highest  point  of  elevation,  form  the  most  difficult  and  costly  section 
of  the  road.  It  must,  however,  be  here  taken  into  consideration,  that  at  this  very 
point  of  the  road  there  are  found  in  the  immediate  vicinity  twelve  Indian  vil- 
lages, capable  of  furnishing  a  large  number  of  efficient  workmen,  who  would  ba 
N 


106         RAILWAY  FROM  VERA  CRUZ  TO  THE   CITY  OF  MEXICO. 

willing  and  even  anxious  to  labor  at  the  very  low  price  of  37|  cents  per  day,  in  the 
most  healthy  climate  of  the  country. 

"  From  this  point  of  highest  elevation,  the  route  followed,  reduces  the  distance 
to  the  city  of  Mexico  to  37  leagues — making  the  whole  distance  from  Vera  Cruz  to 
th§  capital  not  more  than  73  leagues. 

"  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  in  making  the  following  estimate,  we  have  taken 
into  consideration  the  extreme  low  rate  of  wages  in  the  country,  as  compared  with 
the  wages  of  the  journeymen  laborers  in  the  United  States ;  and  this  alone  must 
make  an  immense  difference  in  cost  of  works  of  the  kind  executed  in  Mexico, 
whenever  we  base  our  estimates  upon  the  costs  of  similar  works  in  England  or  in 
our  own  country. 

ESTIMATE    OF   COST. 

Section.  Leagues.  Dollars. 

1st.  3        Grading  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  foot  of  the  small  ridge  of 

the  Molino  de  Ricato,  over  a  sandy  soil,  easy  to  exca- 
vate and  transport  superstructure,     ....       125,000 

2d.  2        W^hole  cost  of  the  two  leagues,  from  the  last  point  to  the 

river  San  Juan,  nearly  level  ground,  including  super- 
structure and  a  stone  bridge  across  this  river,  .  95,000 

3d.  12        Twelve  leagues  from  the  river  San  Juan   to  Boca  del 

Monte, 450,000 

4th.  6k        Six  and  a  half  leagues  from  'Boca  del  Monte  to  the  Bar- 

ranca of  Chichiquila — superstructure,     .         .         .  275,000 

5th  6|  Six  and  a  half  leagues  across  the  Barranca  of  Chichiquila. 
This  section  is  the  most  difficult  and  costly  part  of  the 
road,  and  Avill  cost  over  p00,000  per  mile — say,  super- 
structure,   2,500,000 

6th.  4        The  next  four  leagues  to  the  valley  of  St.  Andres,     .  245,000 

7th.  34|  From  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  through  the  northern 
part  of  the  valley  of  St.  Andres,  crossing  the  road  from 
Perote  to  Puebla,  near  the  village  of  Poctarus  to  San 
Cristoval,  1,300,000 

8th.             4        Four  leagues  from  San  Cristoval  to  the  city  of  Mexico,       270,000 
Locomotives  and  cars, 550,000 


Whole  cost  of  the  road, 5,810,000 

P.  O.  HEBERT, 
Lieut.  Col.  14th  Infantry  " 


CHAPTER     VIII. 
MEXICAN    FINANCES. 


DISORDER  OF  MEXICAN  FINANCES ENORMOUS  USURY. CHAR- 
ACTER OF  FINANCIAL  OPERATIONS. EXPENSES  OF  ADMINIS- 
TRATIONS.  ANALYSIS     OF     MEXICAN     DEBT COMPARISON     OF 

INCOME  AND  OUTLAY DEFICIT. 

The  distracted  political  condition  of  Mexico  since  1809,  has 
contributed  largely  to  the  proverbial  impoverishment  and  financial 
discredit  of  a  country,  which,  nevertheless,  has  during  the  whole 
intervening  period,  been  engaged  in  furnishing  an  important  share 
of  the  world's  circulating  medium.  The  revolutionary  and  factious 
state  of  parties ;  the  unrestrained  ambition  of  leaders ;  the  violence 
with  which  they  displaced  rivals  ;  their  short  tenure  of  office  when 
they  attained  power  and  the  consequent  impossibility  of  maturing 
any  permanent  scheme  of  finance ;  the  ordinary  reliance  of  states- 
men upon  a  large  army,  and  the  immense  cost  of  its  support;  the 
continual  and  habitual  recourse  to  loans  at  ruinous  rates  of  usury ; 
the  comparative  ignorance  of  domestic  resources  and  their  failure 
of  development  in  consequence  either  of  intestine  broils  or  the  igno- 
rance and  slothfulness  of  the  population,  together  with  the  plunder 
of  the  treasury  by  unprincipled  demagogues  and  despots,  may  all 
be  regarded  as  the  basis  of  Mexican  misrule  and  pecuniary  misfor- 
tune. For  nearly  forty  years  every  minister  of  finance  has  been 
taxed  to  discover  means  for  daily  support.  Let  us  illustrate  the 
system  commonly  pursued. 

On  the  20th  of  September,  fifteen  days  before  the  treaty  of  Es- 
tansuela,  the  administration  of  president  Bustamante  offered  the 
following  terras  for  a  loan  of  $1,200,000.  It  proposed  to  receive 
the  sum  of  $200,000  in  cash,  and  $1,000,000  represented  in  the 
paper  or  credits  of  the  government.  These  credits  or  paper  were 
worth,  in  the  market,  nine  per  cent.  About  one-half  of  the  loan 
was  taken,  and  the  parties  obtained  orders  on  the  several  maritime 
custom  houses,  receivable  in  payment  of  duties. 

The  revenues  of  the  custom  house  of  Matamoros,  had  been  al- 
ways appropriated  to  pay  the  army  on  the  northern  frontier  of  the 
republic,  but  during  the  administration  of  General  Bustamante,  the 
commandant  of  Matamoros  issued  bonds  or  drafts  against  that  cus- 


108  CHARACTER    OF    FINANCIAL    OPERATIONS. 

torn  house  for  $150,000,  receivable  for  all  kinds  of  duties  as  cash. 
He  disposed  of  these  bonds  to  the  merchants  of  that  port  for 
$100,000 — and,  in  addition  to  the  bonus  of  $50,000,  allowed 
them  interest  on  the  $100,000,  at  the  rate  of  three  per  cent,  per 
month,  until  they  had  duties  to  pay  which  they  could  extinguish  by 
the  drafts. 

Another  transaction,  of  a  singular  nature,  developes  the  character 
of  the  government's  negotiations,  and  can  only  be  accounted  for  by 
the  receipt  of  some  advantages  which  the  act  itself  does  not  dis- 
close to  the  public. 

The  mint  at  Guanajuato,  or  the  right  to  coin  at  that  place,  was 
contracted  for,  in  1842,  by  a  most  respectable  foreign  house  in 
Mexico,  for  $71,000  cash,  for  the  term  oi  fourteen  years,  at  the 
same  time  that  another  offer  was  before  the  government,  stipulating 
for  the  payment  of  $400,000  for  the  same  period,  payable  in  annual 
instalments  of  $25,000  each.  The  $71,000  in  hand,  were,  how- 
ever, deemed  of  more  value  than  the  prospective  four  hundred 
thousand.     This  mint  yielded  a  net  annual  income  of  $60,000. 

These  are  a  few  examples  presented  in  illustration  of  the  spend- 
thrift abandonment  of  the  real  resources  of  the  country ;  and  the 
character  of  the  transactions  at  once  discloses  the  true  origin  and 
continuance  of  national  discredit.  The  demand  of  the  hour  was 
irresistible,  and  if  the  minister  or  the  president  was  unable  to  com- 
ply with  it,  his  political  fate  was  sealed,  perhaps  forever.  The 
isolated  good  or  evil  measures  adopted  by  financiers,  have  only 
tended  to  augment  the  confusion.  Each  government,  of  the  thirty 
or  more  which  have  swayed  Mexico  since  her  independence,  has 
been  forced  to  contend  not  only  with  its  own  errors  but  with  those 
of  its  predecessors ;  and  hence  the  public  has  naturally  lost  faith 
and  hope  in  politicians  as  soon  as  they  assumed  the  helm  of  state. 
No  matter  what  the  personal  character,  or  what  the  financial  talents 
of  ministers  might  be,  the  people  believed  them  to  be  immediately 
compromised  or  paralized  by  circumstances  and  political  necessity. 

We  will  present  the  reader  a  view  of  Mexican  national  expenses, 
according  to  ministerii)^  estimates  during  a  series  of  years  between 
the  establishment  of  the  federal  constitution  in  1824  and  the  war 
with  the  United  States.  This  statement,  in  regard  to  a  country 
which  has  been  stationary  in  population  and  industry,  with  an  aug- 
menting outlay  of  money,  is  somewhat  remarkable  : 

1825  the  national  expenses  were      .     $17,100,000 

1826  "  "  "     .  16,666,463 
1827  to  1828                "              "           "         .       13,363,098 


EXPENSES    OF    ADMINISTRATIONS.  IC® 

1828  to  1829  the  national  expenses  were  15,604,000 
1830  to  1831  "  "  "  .  17,438,000 
1832  to  1833  "  "  "  .  22,392,000 
According  to  report  of  commissioners  to  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  in  1846,  ....  21,254,134 
Period  of  Santa  Anna's  administration,          .  25,222,304 

These  dates,  it  will  be  observed  comprehend  epochs  in  which 
the  country  has  been  governed  by  the  federal  system  as  well  as 
those  in  which  extraordinary  powers  were  conferred  on  national 
magistrates.  In  the  preceding  yearly  amounts,  it  should  be  recol- 
lected, that  a  few  of  them  comprise  occasional  sums  paid  on  ac- 
count of  the  foreign  and  domestic  debt ;  but,  on  an  average,  thir- 
teen millions  of  dollars  may  be  considered  as  the  annual  outlay. 

In  consequence  of  this  costly  government  of  so  small  a  nation,  a 
large   foreign   and   domestic  debt  has  been  created,  in  addition  to 
the  liabilities  of  New  Spain  prior  to  independence,  which  are  calcu 
lated  at  nearly  forty-two  millions. 

In  considering  this  interesting  subject  we  have  taken  pains  to 
obtain  the  best  authorities  from  Mexico,  and,  from  the  reports  of 
the  ministers  of  finance,  we  reach  the  following  results  in  regard  to 
that  republic's  financial  condition  in  the  year  1850.  Her  foreign 
debt  amounts  to  $58,889,487;  her  home-debt  to  $48,934,610;  and 
her  debt,  prior  to  independence,  to  $41,983,096,  making  a  total 
of  pecuniary  liabilities,  with  interest,  to  the  1st  of  July,  1849,  of 
one  hundred  and  forty-nine  millions,  eight  hundred  and  seven  thou- 
sand, one  hundred  and  ninety-three  dollars  ;  —  the  annual  interest 
on  which,  alone,  amounts  to  nearly  nine  millions  of  dollars. 

Inasmuch  as  the  clear  income  of  Mexico  in  1849,  was  not  calcu- 
lated at  more  than  five  millions  five  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
one  hundred  and  twelve  dollars,  while' the  expenses  were  rated  at 
thirteen  millions  seven  hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand  four  hun- 
dred and  thirty-five  dollars,  there  would  necessarily  be  an  annual 
deficit,  in  the  mere  current  finances,  of  eight  millions  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty-three 
dollars.  This  sum,  added  to  the  actual  interest  on  the  national 
debt,  shows  the  total  yearly  deficit  in  Mexico,  of  seventeen  millions 
two  hundred  and  thirteen  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty-four 
dollars  ;  —  a  sum  larger  than  the  present  yield  of  all  the  mints  in 
the  republic. 

This  frightful  picture  of  national  finances  is  now  absorbing  the 
attention  of  the  Mexican  people  and  congress;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  some  wise  plan  may  be  devised  to  extricate  the  nation  from 


110  ANALYSIS    OF    MEXICAN    DEBT. 

ruin  and  that  the  government  may  be  sufficiently  strong  and  en- 
during to  carry  it  into  effect. 

Analysis  op  National  Debt  and  Resources,  1850. 
1st.  The  Foreign  Debt. 

The  foreign  debt  of  Mexico,  or  the  liability  of  the 
national  treasury  to  citizens  or  subjects  of  other 
countries,  according  to  the  statement  made  and  ap- 
proved by  the  meeting  of  bondholders  in  London  on 
the  24th  of  June,  1846,  was  ^£10,241 ,650,  or,  in 
Mexican  currency,  at  $5  the  ^,  to  .         .         $51,208,250 

This  capital,  according  to  agreement  with  the  bond- 
holders, bears  an  annual  interest  of  5  per  cent, 
from  the  1st  of  July,  1846,  which  amounts  yearly 
to  $2,560,412,  and,  up  to  the  1st  July,  1849,  —  to 
the  sum  of 7,681,237 


Total  foreign  debt  to  1st  July,  1849,  .         .  $58,889,487 

2d.  Home  Debt. 

The  debt,  the  liquidation  of  which  is  founded  upon  an 
assignment  of  26  per  cent,  of  the  income  from  mer- 
cantile duties,  amounts  to            ....     $15,030,466* 
Interest  on  this  sum  to  1st  July,  1849,        .         .  2,745,947 
Debt  created  for  the  redemption  of  the  old  copper  cur- 
rency of  Mexico, 2,083,205 

Interest  due  to  1st  July,  1849,            ....  574,992 

Due  for  indemnities,  credits  and  contracts,     .         .  3,500,000 

Due  to  civil  and  military  employees  and  pensioners,     .  25,000,000 


Total  home  debt,  1st  July,  1849,         .         .      $48,934,610 

3d.  Debt  before  National  Independence. 

National  debt  anterior  to  independence,  interest  to  )  <,,.,  ^oo  nn/? 
1st  July,  1849, \  $41,983,096 

Summary. 

1.  Foreign  debt, $58,889,487 

2.  Home  debt, 48,934,610 

3.  Debt  prior  to  independence,         ....  41,983,096 


Total  debt  of  Mexico, $149,807,193 

The  annual  interest  on  which,  at  6  per  cent,  is  $8,988,431 


COMPARISON    OF    INCOME    AND    OUTLAY DEFICIT.  Ill 

Estimate  oftlie  Income  of  Mexico  from  the  1st  July^  1848,  to  1st 
July,  1849,  according  to  the  calculation  of  the  Mexican  minister 
of  Finance. 

Income  from  Maritime  Duties,  .         .         .      $4,488,000 

"       from  Internal  Duties,  Taxes,  &c.,  &c,,  2,224,000 


Total, $6,712,000 

Deduct  from  this  the  cost  of  collecting  this  revenue  )     i  171  < 
and  for  various  prior  partial  assignments  of  it,  j       '       ' 


Total  income  for  the  year,  .         .         .         .  $5,540,112 

Expenses  of  the  Government  from  1st  July,  1848  to 

1st  July,  1849. 

Expenses  of  Legislative  department,       ,         .         .         $'^20,300 

"            Department  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  re-  )       c>no  f\or. 
lations, \       898,029 

"  Department  of  Justice,         .         .         .  135,550 

"                     "          of  Finance,        .         .         .  5,411,984 

"                     "          of  War,         ....  7,769,342 

**                     "          Supreme  Court  of  Justice,  330,230 


Total,         ....        $15,265,435 
Deduct  from  this  the  sums  that  may  be  saved  by 
economical  administration  of  the  departments  and 
by  the  improved  condition   or   reduction  of  the 
army,  say,  ...  ...          1,500,000 


Total  expenses  of  government,  .         .         .         .         $13,765,435 

Summary.  - 
Total  of  National  Expenses,  ....  $13,765,435 

"  "         Income,  ....  5,540,112 


Deficit,         .         .         .         .         .         .       •.         .       $8,225,323 

Deficit  on  yearly  expenses,     .         .  $8,225,323 

Interest  on  debt,       ....         8,988,431 


Total  yearly  deficit,       .         .         .         $17,213,754 


CHAPTER    IX. 


MANUF A  CTURE  S 


TABLE    OF    COTTON  FACTORIES  IN  MEXICO CONSUMPTION PRO- 
DUCTION.  INCREASE  OF  FACTORIES  DAY  AND    NIGHT  WORK. 

DEFICIT  OF  MATERIAL WATER  AND   STEAM  POWER MEXI- 
CAN MANUFACTURES  GENERALLY. 


Tabular  Statement  of  the  Cotton  Factories  in  Mexico,  their  Consumption 
AND  Production  in  1844. 

States. 

o 

o 

o 
d 

^; 

5 
1 
4 
17 
21 
2 
1 
8 

59 

0) 

u 

o 

«    . 

.1-2 
'&,"^ 

5,560 
500 

8,904 
23,894 
37,396 

5,400 

2,198 
22,856 

106,708 

bX) 

.S 

m 

'5 
B 

'5, 

Total. 

£ 
o 
o 

Cm 
O 

6 

C,    4, 
H    S 

M 

111 

«    o    « 

1  o 

2'- 

O  o 
<u  o  -2 

S 
V 

u 
>> 

IS 

V 

Durango. . . 
Guanajuato 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Puebla 

Queretaro. . 
Sonera  .... 
Vera  Cruz  . 

816 

800 
5,664 

200 
5,842 
4,200 

'  1,992 

6,376 

800 
14,568 
24,094 
42,874 
9,600 
2,198 
24,848 

140 

*"226 

1,187 

530 

112 

54 

366 

2,609 

139 
10 
228 
401 
691 
137 
71 
361 

400 
900 
16,800 
36,000 
61.710 
10,000 

'35,835 

778 

"  3*277 

1,290 

400 

57 

733 

fl,795 
150 
2,450 
8,413 
6,154 
2,400 
385 
5,510 

18,654 

125,362 

2,038 

161,654 

6,535 

P7,257 

Very  few  returns  are  wanting  to  make  this  table  perfect  in  every  respect. 

From  this  summary  it  appears  that  the  total  number  of  spindles 
in  operation  and  in  course  of  erection  in  the  republic  in  the  year 
1844,  —  anterior  to  the  war  and  during  a  period  of  comparative 
progress,  —  amounted  to  125,362,  together  with  2609  looms  in  the 
fifty-nine  factories  of  cotton  stuffs  and  twist.  These  factories  con- 
sumed, weekly,  2038  quintals  of  cotton,  and  gave,  according  to  the 
table,  a  weekly  product  of  161,654  lbs.  of  cotton  twist,  a  portion  of 
which  they  converted  into  6535  pieces  of  cotton  cloth,  the  remain- 
der being  sold  for  the  consumption  of  private  and  scattered  hand- 
looms  throughout  the  country.  An  intelligent  and  experienced 
manufacturer,  acquainted  with  Mexican  factories,  and  at  present  re- 
siding in  this  country,  calculates  with  apparent  justice,  that  2038 


INCREASE    OF    FACTORIES DAY    AND    NIGHT    MiORK.         113 

quintals  of  cotton,  allowing  fairly  for  waste,  will  yield,  183,420  lbs. 
of  twist  and  filling,  and  that  the  weekly  product  of  cotton  cloth  will 
be  8479  pieces  of  32  varas  each,  from  2609  looms,  each  loom  ave- 
raging about  three  and  one  quarter  pieces  per  week.  But  allowing 
this  correction  of  the  above  table  of  the  JiLtita  de  Fomenfo,  and  ad- 
hering to  its  data  in  other  respects  in  which  it  appears  to  be  entirely 
faithful,  we  attain  some  important  results.  By  comparing  the  number 
of  spindles  actually  in  Mexico  at  that  epoch,  with  the  number  known 
to  be  there  in  1842,  viz :  131,280,  and  adding  to  the  number  now 
stated  8050  which  are  in  the  various  factories  closed  in  the.  interval 
but  whose  machinery  is  still  in  existence,  we  show  an  increase  of 
2132  according  to  the  most  accurate  accessible  information.  Since 
the  war  the  number  has  been  no  doubt  largely  augmented  if  we 
may  judge  by  the  numerous  shipments  of  machinery  to  Mexico 
from  Europe  and  North  America. 

In  order  to  show  the  importance  to  Mexico  of  allowing  the  libe- 
ral importation  of  cotton  from  the  United  States,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
not  likely  she  will  become  a  cotton  growing  country  in  proportion  to 
the  increase  of  her  manufacturing  population,  we  have  prepared  the 
following  comparative  estimates.  In  our  chapters  on  the  agriculture"! 
of  the  republic  we  have  endeavored,  and  we  hope  successfully,  to  [ 
demonstrate  the  impracticability  of  inducing  the  Indians  to  produce 
sufficient  for  present  purposes,  or  to  devote  themselves  to  the  labor 
of  extensive  cotton  plantations  for  the  benefit  of  the  future. 

Working  by  day  alone  the  Mexican  factories  consume  yearly  ,^ 
105,976  quintals,  or  10,597,600  lbs.  of  raw  cotton,  whilst  the  whole 
cotton  crop  of  the  republic  according  to  recent  estimates,  is  not 
more  than  60,000,  or,  70,000  quintals,  equal  to  7,000,000  lbs. ;  but 
if  they  worked  by  day  and  night,  they  would  use  18,545,800  lbs.  of 
the  raw  material,  allowing  three-fourths  of  the  day  consumption  for 
night  work.  From  these  calculations  we  derive  the  following  im- 
tant  results,  as  to  deficiency: 

1st. 

Working  by  day  only,  the  yearly  consumption  of 

cotton  is  .       , 10,597,600  lbs. 

Deduct  the  whole  Mexican  crop  of  70,000  quin- 
tals, at  100  lbs.  per  quintal,     ....     7,000,000    " 


Deficit,  .         .         .  3,597,600   " 


114      DEFICIT    OF    MATERIAL WATER    AND    STEAM    POWER. 

2d. 

Working  by  day — yearly  consumption,  as  above,     10,597,600  lbs. 
Add  three-fourths  for  night  work,         .         .         .     7,948,200   " 


Total  consumption,  .       18,545,800   " 

Deduct  Mexican  crop  as  above,  .         .         .     7,000,000   " 


Deficit,  .         .         .       11,545,800   "> 

Cotton  varies,  as  we  have  seen  in  price  according  to  demand,  at 
Tepic,  Mazatlan,  Vera  Cruz,  Tampico,  Puebla,  Durango,  the  val- 
ley of  Mexico,  &c.,  from  fifteen  dollars,  per  quintal,  to  forty-eight. 
If  we  rate  it,  on  an  average,  at  twenty-five  dollars  per  quintal,  the 
value  of  the  deficit  on  day  consumption  will  be  $899,400,  and  on 
day  and  night  consumption,  $2,886,450,  all  of  which  must  neces- 
sarily, be  made  up  by  importation. 

We  have  prepared  the  preceding  table  in  order  to  attract  the  at- 
tention of  cotton  producing  countries,  and  to  demonstrate  the  fact 
that  Mexico,  in  all  likelihood,  may  become  a  manufacturing  nation, 
inasmuch  as  the  surplus  population  of  towns,  the  women  and  chil- 
dren, may  be  successfully  employed  in  this  branch  of  human  in- 
dustry, when  they  have  no  agricultural  district  from  which  they 
may  easily  derive  support  with  the  least  labor.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  water  power,  for  the  use  of  factories  is  abundant  all  over 
the  republic.  The  natural  drainage  of  a  mountain  country  will  at 
once  prove  this  fact.  Innumerable  small  streams,  falling  from  the 
crests  and  sides  of  the  sierras,  pour  through  the  ravines  and  barran- 
cas ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  wood  and  the  costliness 
of  its  transportation,  it  is  not  probable  that  steam  power  can  be  ad- 
vantageously used.  Factories  of  paper  near  the  capital,  at  Puebla 
and  in  Guadalajara  are  working  with  success,  but  they  do  not  pro- 
duce enough  for  the  consumption  of  the  republic.  At  Puebla  and 
Mexico  there  are  several  factories  of  the  ordinary  kinds  of  glass  and 
tumblers,  whilst  woollen  blankets,  baizes,  and,  at  present,  fine 
cloths,   are  yielded  by  several   establishments   erected  before   and 

'  The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  a  branch  of  agriculture  of  almost  marvellous  in- 
crease. Mr.  Burke,  a  member  of  our  congress,  from  South  Carolina,  in  1789,  when 
speaking  of  southern  agriculture,  remarked  that  "cotton  was  likewise  in  contempla- 
tion." During  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  7012  bags  of  the^ 
article  were  imported  into  Liverpool  a  perfect  panic  Avas  produced  by  so  unusual 
a  supply,  at  present  150,000  bags  may  reach  a  single  port  without  greatly  affect- 
ing the  price.  In  1791  the  whole  United  States  produced  only  two  millions  of 
pounds,  whilst  in  1848,  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  calculated  the  whole  crop  at 
1,066,000,000  lbs. 


MEXICAN  MANUFACTURES  GENERALLY. 


115 


since  the  war.  The  well  known  Mexican  serape,  or  poncho,  —  an 
oblong  garment,  pierced  in  the  centre  to  allow  the  passage  of  the 
head,  and  which  falls  in  graceful  folds  from  tJie  shoulders  of  a  horse- 
man over  his  person  —  is  one  of  the  most  generally  demanded 
fabrics  from  native  looms.  These  blankets  are  often  of  beautiful 
texture,  composed  of  the  richest  materials  and  colors,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  fineness  of  their  wool  and  weaving,  vary  in  cost  from 
twenty-five  to  five  hundred  dollars.  The  serape  is  an  indispensable 
article,  both  for  use  and  luxury,  for  the  lepero  as  well  as  the  cabal- 
lero,  and  being  as  much  needed  by  men  as  the  reboso,  or  long  cot- 
ton shawl,  is  by  the  women,  it  may  readily  be  conceived  how  great 
is  the  consumption  of  these  two  articles  of  domestic  manufacture 
alone.  There  are  between  five  and  six  thousand  hand  looms  y^ 
throughout  the  several  states,  and  these  are  continually  engaged  in 
the  fabrication  of  rebosos  and  serapes,  the  latter  of  which  are  most 
exquisitely  dyed  and  woven  in  tasteful  patterns  in  the  neighborhood 
of  SaltiUo.  ' 


'  Whilst  these  pages  are  passing  through  the  press  information  has  been  received 
from  the  Mexican  gazettes  that  in  1846  there  were  sixty-two  coUon  factories  for 
spinning  and  weaving,  and  five  for  manufacturing  woollens  ;  —  that  the  first  men- 
tioned have  been  greatly  improved  by  the  introduction  of  the  best  kinds  of  ma- 
chinery, and  that  two  ntw  factories  for  woollens  have  been  set  in  operation  in  the 
state  of  Mexico,  which  produce  cloths  and  cassimeres  that  are  eagerly  purchased  by 
the  best  classes.  The  cost  of  these  fabrics  is  not  mentioned,  but  it  is  probably  fifty 
per  cent,  higher  than  if  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 


^ 


^-^»^H;'y"i:  ^  ^-^ipr.  ~v> 


INDIAN  HUT  IN  THE  TIERRA  CALIENTE. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  OF  MEXICO. 


THE    MILITARY    IN    MEXICO    BEFORE     AND    AFTER    THE    REVOLUTION  — 

CONFIRMATION    OF     ARMY ITS     POLITICAL    USE. CHARACTER     OF 

MEXICAN     SOLDIERS RECRUITING TACTICS OFFICERS. DRA- 
MATIC   CHARACTER    OF    ARMY RECRIMINATIONS. CONDITION    OF 

THE  ARMY  AT  THE  PEACE. ARMY  ON  THE  NORTHERN  FRONTIER 

MILITARY  COLONIES. CHARACTER    OF  THE    TRIBES. FORTRESSES 

PEROTE ACAPULCO SAN   JUAN   DE    ULUA. REORGANIZATION 

OF  THE  ARMY TABULAR  VIEW  OF  MEN  AND  MATERIEL. NAVY 

EXTENT  OF  COAST  ON  BOTH   SEAS. NAVAL  ESTABLISHMENT VES- 
SELS AND  OFFICERS. EXPENSES  OF  WAR  AND  NAVY. 

We  have  already  alluded,  in  the  historical  portion  of  this  work  to 
some  of  the  fostering  sources  of  the  Mexican  army  and  to  the  evil 
results  its  importance  has  produced  in  the  country.  The  colonial 
forces  designed  for  the  maintenance  of  order  and  due  subjection  in 
New  Spain,  w^ere  chiefly  sent  from  the  old  world  until  the  wars  in 
Europe  required  the  mother  country  to  hoard  its  military  resources. 
These  foreign  stipendiaries  for  a  long  time  sufficed  to  secure  the 
loyalty  of  the  emigrants  ;  but  as  the  country  grew  in  importance  and 
numbers,  and  as  the  Indians  revolted  against  their  task-masters,  it 
became  necessary  from  time  to  time  to  call  out  reinforcements  from 
the  colonists ;  and  when  foreign  invasion  was  dreaded,  these  levies, 
as  we  have  seen,  were  largely  augmented  from  all  parts  of  the 
viceroyalty. 

The  idea  of  military  service  was,  accordingly,  not  altogether  un- 
familiar to  the  Mexican  mind  when  the  first  insurrectionary  move- 
ments occurred  under  the  lead  of  Hidalgo ;  but  when  the  violent 
outbreak  threatened  to  degenerate  into  a  w^ar  of  castes,  and  to  array 
the  Indians  against  all  in  whose  veins  circulated  Castilian  blood,  it 
became  the  duty  of  the  settlers  to  cultivate  that  spirit  and  discipline 
which  would,  at  least,  preserve  them  from  utter  destruction.  The 
succeeding  war  of  independence  converted  the  whole  country  for 
eleven  years  into  a  camp,  and  when  the  strife  terminated  in  success, 
it  was  found  that  a  people,  whose  natural  temperament  addicted 
them  to  military  spectacles,  had  become  habituated  and  enured  to  a 
military  career. 

When  the  war  was  over  and  the  power  of  Spain  effectually 
broken,  the  contest  was  transferred  from  a  foreign  enemy  to  domes- 


CONFIRMATION     OF    ARMY ITS    POLITICAL    USE.  117 

tic  foes.     Men  who  had  been  accustomed  for  so  long  a  period  to 
military  rule  did  not  immediately  acquire  the  habit  of  self-govern- 
ment.    National  police  required  a  national  army.     Officers  who  had 
distinguished  themselves  in  an  epoch  when  laws  were  silent  and  the 
only  authorities  recognized  wore  the  insignia  of  military  life,  did  not 
forsake  willingly  the  power  they  enjoyed.     Indeed,  they  were  the 
only  authentic  personages  capable  of  enforcing  obedience;  and  their 
adherents  were  soon  armed  against  each  other  in  all  the  contentions 
for  political  position  which  vexed  the  republic  during  the  dawn 
of  its  national  existence.     Civil  wars  became  habitual.     An  army 
was  an  element  of  strength  and  success  which  no  military  chieftain 
thought  proper  to  crush.     Rallying  his  disciplined  partizans,  as  long 
as  his  friends  or  his  fortune  supplied  their  support,  he  was  ready 
at  a  moment  to  take  the  field  either  for  the  maintenance  of  a  leader's 
cause  or  to  secure  his  own  elevation.     Nor  was  this  mode  of  life 
disagreeable  to  the  body  of  the  army  and  inferior  officers  who  were 
lodged  and  fed  at  the  public  expense  during  a  period  when  it  was 
difficult  to  find  easy  or  agreeable  civil  employments  in  the  distracted 
realm.     Each  petty  subaltern  and  even  every  common  soldier,  clad 
in  the  livery  of  the  state  and  carrying  arms,  was  regarded  by  the 
unshod  leperos  and  homeless  vagrants  as  a  personage  of  superior 
position ;   and  thus,  whilst  the  army  became  at  that  epoch  popular 
with  the  people  it  had  liberated  from  Spanish  bondage,  it  ripened 
into  a  necessity  of  the  aspiring  politicians  who  craved  a  speedier 
access  to  power  than  by  the  slow  and  toilsome  process  of  a  repub- 
lican canvass.     The  state,  itself,  perceiving  these  manifold  causes 
of  military  favor,  utility,  and   supposed  need,  preserved  the  army 
from  all  assaults   by  patriotic   congressmen,  and  thus  the   greatest 
curse  and  burthen  of  the  nation,  —  the  origin  and  means  of  all  its 
woes  and  all  its  despots,  —  was,  from  .the  first,  riveted  to  the  body 
politic  of  Mexico. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  in  speaking  of  the  Mexi- 
can army  we  design  to  compare  it,  either  in  detail  or  as  an  or- 
ganized body,  with  the  troops  of  this  country  or  of  Europe. 
Neither  in  the  mass  of  its  mateiiel,  nor  in  its  officers,  does  it  vie 
with  the  trained  and  disciplined  forces  of  other  civilized  countries. 
Soldiers  in  Mexico  are  rather  actors  in  a  political  drama,  —  dressed 
and  decorated  for  imposing  display,  —  than  efficient  warriors  whose 
instruction  and  power  make  them  irresistible  in  the  field.  In  all 
the  engagements,  or  attempts  to  engage,  which  occurred  in  Mexico 
since  the  termination  of  the  war  of  independence,  there  has  been  a 
laudable  desire,  at  least  among  the  troops,  to  avoid  the  shedding  of 


118  CHARACTER    OF    MEXICAN    SOLDIERS. 

blood.  Cities  have  been  besieged  and  bombarded ;  magnificent 
arrays  of  forces  have  been  made  on  adjacent  fields ;  large  camps 
have  been  formed  and  held  in  readiness ;  cannons,  loaded  with 
cannister  and  grape,  have  been  discharged  along  the  crovv^ded  high- 
ways of  towns ;  marksmen  have  been  placed  in  towers,  steeples, 
and  azoteasj  to  pick  off  unwary  passengers ;  divisions  have  been 
reviewed  and  mancEuvred  in  sight  of  each  other,  but,  in  all  these 
revolts  or  pronunciamientos,  no  pitched  battles  were  fought  which 
actually  terminated  the  contest  by  the  gun  and  sword.  The  aspi- 
rant chief,  or  the  hero  he  designed  to  displace,  managed  to  secure 
the  majority  of  the  neighboring  military  forces,  and  as  soon  as  the 
fact  w^as  unequivocally  ascertained,  the  one  who  was  in  the  mi- 
nority fled  from  the  scene  without  provoking  a  trial  by  battle.  In 
1840,  1841,  and  1844,  during  the  administrations  of  Bustamante 
and  Santa  Anna,  there  were  various  exhibitions  of  these  sham  con- 
tests ;  but,  in  all  of  them,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  inno- 
cent non-combatant  people  were  tlie  greatest  sufferers,  and  that  the 
army  escaped  comparatively  unscathed. 

These  observations  are  not  designed  to  impugn  the  military 
nerve  or  spirit  of  the  Mexicans,  for  the  war  with  the  United  States 
and  the  war  of  their  revolution,  demonstrated  that  they  unite 
both  in  quite  an  eminent  degree.  Our  officers  believe  that  the 
Mexican  possesses  the  elements  of  a  good  soldier,  but  that  he  is 
neither  trained,  disciplined,  nor  led,  so  as  to  make  him  a  dangerous 
foe.  This  is  demonstrated  by  the  result  of  the  recent  war  and  of 
every  action  fought  during  it.  A  brave  show  and  a  bold  assault 
were  not  stubbornly  followed  up  with  pertinacious  resolution,  in 
spite  of  all  resistance.  The  Mexicans  were  fighting  on  their  own 
soil,  for  their  own  country,  against  a  hated  foe,  yet  they  failed  in 
every  conflict,  and  with  every  conceivable  disparity  of  numbers. 

The  great  body  of  the  army  is  of  course  composed  either  of  In- 
dians or  mixed  breeds,  and  the  idea  of  nationality  in  its  high  love 
of  a  loveable  country,  does  not  in  all  probability,  animate  or  inspire 
these  classes  in  the  hour  of  danger.  They  did  not  fight  with  a 
common  or  an  understood  purpose.  They  were  rather  forced  mer- 
cenaries than  patriots.  It  was  not  a  war  of  enthusiasm.  Every 
effort  was  made  by  grandiloquent  proclamations  and  false  allega- 
tions to  rally  and  nerve  them;  but  whenever  they  crossed  arms  with 
our  forces,  if  they  failed  in  the  onset,  like  lions  foiled  in  their 
spring,  they  retreated  to  their  lair.  Nevertheless,  throughout  the 
contest,  there  were  repeated  instances  of  courage,  constancy,  endu- 
rance, and  persistence  which  satisfied  our  officers  that  under  a  diflfer- 


RECRUITING TACTICS OFFICERS.  119 

ent  system  of  education  and  command,  the  Mexicans  would  make 
excellent  soldiers.  Their  horsemen,  probably  the  best  riders  on  the 
continent,  paid  more  attention  to  the  management  of  their  animals 
than  to  the  use  of  their  horse's  force  in  the  charge  ;  while  their  in- 
fantry and  artillery  avoided  those  close  quarters  which  make  the 
bayonet  so  powerful  a  weapon  when  directed  by  intrepid,  unquail- 
ing  arms  in  the  presence  and  under  the  lead  of  unflinching  com- 
pnay  officers.  Their  lancers  did  more  damage  to  dismounted  vic- 
tims than  to  erect  and  fighting  foes. 

With  the  majority  of  the  rank  and  file,  the  army  is,  in  all  likeli- 
hood, not  a  profession  of  choice.  Enlistment  is  now  scarcely  ever 
voluntary.  When  men  are  required  for  a  new  regiment  or  to  fill 
companies  thinned  by  death  or  desertion,  a  sergeant  is  despatched 
with  his  guard  to  recruit  among  the  Indians  and  peons  of  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  subaltern  probably  finds  these  individuals  laboring 
in  the  fields,  and  without  even  the  formality  of  a  request,  selects  the 
best  men  from  the  group  and  orders  them  into  the  ranks.  If  they 
resist  or  attempt  to  escape,  they  are  immediately  lazo^d,  and,  at 
nightfall  the  gang  is  marched,  bound  in  pairs,  to  the  nearest  bar- 
rack, where  the  wretched  victims  of  military  oppression  are  pursued 
by  a  mournful  procession  of  wives  and  children  who  henceforth 
follow  their  husbands  or  parents  during  the  whole  period  of  service. 
From  the  hands  of  the  recruiting  sergeant  the  conscript  passes  into 
those  of  the  drill  sergeant.  The  chief  duty  of  this  personage  is  to 
teach  him  to  march,  countermarch,  and  to  handle  an  unserviceable 
weapon.  From  the  drill  sergeant  he  succeeds  to  the  company  offi- 
cer, and  here,  perhaps,  he  encounters  the  worst  foe  of  his  ultimate 
efficiency. 

Officers  in  Mexico  have  no  thorough  military  and  scientific  edu- 
cation. There  is  a  military  school  at  -Chapultepec,  near  the  capi- 
tal, but  it  has  never  been  carefully  and  completely  organized,  nor 
has  it  furnished  many  men  who  have  distinguished  themselves  in 
the  field.  The  politicians,  relying  on  the  dramatic  power  of  the 
army,  made  that  army  the  means  of  reward  and  influence  in  civil 
life,  by  selecting  its  officers  of  all  grades  from  every  employment  or 
occupation.  Merchants,  tradespeople,  professional  men,  children 
of  wealthy  or  ambitious  families,  all  attained  rank  in  the  army  by 
this  unwise  means,  and  the  consequence  has  been  that  the  majority 
of  company,  and  perhaps  even  of  field  officers,  was  rather  fitted  to 
display  the  magnificent  uniforms  to  which  their  grades  entitle 
them  than  to  discipline  the  rank  and  file  when  organized  in  battal- 
ions, regiments  and  divisions. 


120         DRAMATIC    CHARACTER    OF    ARMY RECRIMINATIONS. 

The  picturesque  and  scenic  efficiency  of  such  an  army  will  be 
easily  admitted,  and  the  causes  of  its  failure  in  the  late  war  will  be 
quite  as  easily  understood.  What  can  be  more  deplorable  in  bat- 
tle, even  for  the  victors,  than  to  behold  an  undisciplined  man  badly 
led  or  driven  into  conflict  ?  What  can  be  more  disastrous  for  an 
officer  than  to  stand  in  the  midst  of  blood  and  carnage,  without 
knowing  what  to  do  in  the  moment  of  trial  when  knowledge  and 
presence  of  mind  are  imperatively  needed  ?  Can  it  be  surprising, 
therefore,  to  observe  that  the  columns  of  Mexican  gazettes  and 
pages  of  Mexican  pamphlets  published  during  the  war,  are  filled 
with  the  basest  crimination  and  recrimination  or  the  lamest  attempts 
at  exculpation  from  disgraceful  defeat  ? 

A  writer  in  the  Monitor  Republicano,  speaking  of  the  Mexican 
army,  says,  you  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  read  the  writings  of  its 
generals  from  the  commencement  of  the  campaign,  through  the  dif- 
ferent actions  and  skirmishes  in  chronological  order,  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  they  have  mutually  called  one  another  traitors,  cowards, 
and  imbeciles.  He  gives  the  following  list  of  recriminations  :  — 
"  Arista  accused  Torrejon,  Ampudia  and  others  ;  Torrejon  Ampu- 
dia,  while  Uraga  charged  Arista ;  Jarregui  accused  Carrasco  and 
various  chiefs ;  Carrasco  accused  Jarregui  and  other  generals ; 
Mejia  brought  charges  against  Ampudia;  Ampudia  against  him  and 
several  leaders,  as  Carrasco,  Enciso  and  others,  principal  officers  of 
the  army.  Urrea  and  otliers  charged  Parrodi  with  cowardice  and 
treason ;  Parrodi  accused  Urrea  and  Romero,  and  Romero  accused 
the  famous  Miramon  of  Mazatlan,  the  speculator  in  the  goods  taken 
by  the  troops  of  Urrea  from  those  of  Gen.  Taylor. 

Requena  accused  Santa  Anna;  Santa  Anna  in  his  turn,  Re- 
quena;  Torrejon  and  Juvera  recriminate  Requena;  Requena,  in  his 
turn,  Torrejon,  Juvera  and  Portilla.  Santa  Anna  accused  Miiion ; 
Minon  accused  Santa  Anna  and  his  confederates.  Santa  Anna 
brought  charges  against  Valencia,  in  Ciudad  Victoria ;  Valencia  in 
his  turn,  accused  Santa  Anna.  Viscayno  accused  Heredia  and 
Garcia  Conde ;  these  in  turn,  Viscayno.  Santa  Anna  recriminates 
against  Canalizo,  Uraga  and  others  at  Cerro  Gordo ;  Canalizo, 
Uraga,  Gaona  and  others  against  Santa  Anna.  Santa  Anna  again 
accuses  Valencia  in  Padierna  ;  Valencia  accuses  Santa  Anna,  Salas 
and  others,  and  Salas  accuses  Valencia,  Torrejon  and  others.  Santa 
Anna,  in  the  first  actions  in  the  valley,  accuses  everybody ;  he  ac- 
cuses Rincon,  Anaya,  and  the  National  Guard  at  Churubusco ;  in 
the  other  actions  of  September,  Terras,  Bravo  and  others.  Bravo, 
Terres  and  others  in  turn,  recriminate   Santa  Anna,  Perdigon  and 


CONDITION    OF    THE    ARMY    AT    THE    PEACE.  121 

Simeon  Ramirez.  Perdigon  accuses  Simeon  Ramirez  and  Terres 
nimself.  Alvarez  accuses  Don  Manuel  Andrade,  and  Andrade  in 
turn  accuses  him.  Alcorta  accuses  the  Andrade  of  the  hussars 
while  he  accuses  Alcorta ;  —  and  in  fine,  we  have  before  us  the 
letters  and  despatches  of  the  whole  of  them  —  we  have  before  us 
their  actions  and  skirmishes,  from  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto  up  to 
the  ignominious  capture  of  Gaona  and  Torrejon  by  the  Poblano  rob- 
ber, Dominguez." 

We  have  quoted  these  passages,  to  prove,  by  Mexican  authority, 
that  our  remarks  upon  the  army  are  not  made  in  a  captious  spirit 
or  with  a  desire  to  undervalue  its  officers  ungenerously. 

Bad  as  had  been  the  organization  and  conduct  of  the  army,  the^ 
were  not,  of  course,  improved  by  the  results  of  the  war.  The 
morale  and  the  materiel  were  both  destroyed,  so  that  when  our 
troops  withdrew  during  the  summer  of  1848,  little  more  than  a 
skeleton  of  the  regiments  remained  to  preserve  order.  This  was, 
indeed,  one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  dread  to  orderly  Mexicans, 
for  they  feared  that  when  all  foreign  restraint  was  suddenly  re- 
moved, the  country  would  be  given  up  to  anarchy.  Without  men 
and  without  means,  the  government  justly  apprehended  the  uprising 
of  the  mob,  nor  were  there  demagogues  wanting  to  excite  the  evil 
passions  of  the  masses  by  an  outcry  against  the  treaty.  At  the 
head  of  this  disgraceful  movement  was  General  Paredes,  who  had 
returned  from  exile,  but  had  not  been  trusted  by  the  government 
during  the  conflict.  The  payment  of  the  first  instalment  of  the  sum 
agreed  upon  in  the  treaty,  however,  enabled  the  authorities  to  main- 
tain tranquillity,  and  as  soon  as  comparative  order  was  enforced  by 
a  new  administration,  the  army  was  reorganized  under  a  law 
passed  on  the  4th  of  November,  1848.  By  this  act,  the  military 
establishment  was  greatly  reduced,  even  on  paper,  and,  in  1849, 
not  more  than  five  thousand  two  hundred,  rank  and  file,  were  in 
actual  service. 

If  there  were,  in  reality,  no  need  of  an  army  in  Mexico  to  oppose 
a  foreign  enemy,  or,  to  preserve  domestic  peace,  one  would  still  be 
required  to  secure  the  Northern  Frontier  against  the  incursions  of 
Indians.  From  the  earliest  periods,  the  Spaniards  were  vexed  by 
their  savage  assaults,  and,  since  the  establishment  of  independence, 
the  Mexicans  have  every  year  seen  their  people  and  property  car- 
ried off  by  the  robber  tribes,  whilst  their  villages,  ranchos  and 
haciendas  were  totally  destroyed  or  partially  ravaged. 

Mexican  engineers  have  calculated  that  the  new  boundary  line, 
following  the  course  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Gila  and  including 
p 


122    ARMY    ON    THE    NORTHERN    FRONTIER MILIYARY    COLONIES. 

a  mathematical  line  of  seventy  leagues  between  these  streams,  is 
six  hundred  and  forty-six  leagues  or  about  nineteen  hundred  miles 
in  length.  Three-fourths  of  this  line  pass  through  an  uninhabited 
region,  and,  consequently,  the  savages  have  free  access  across  it  to 
the  few  and  small  settlements  on  the  border.  Such  an  extent  of 
frontier,  though  considerably  reduced  from  the  former  line  anterior 
to  the  treaty,  became  at  once  an  object  of  concern  to  the  govern- 
ment, especially  as  the  people  of  the  United  States  immediately 
opened  communications  through  the  Indian  country  with  the 
Pacific,  and  would  probably  soon  control  the  important  passes 
through  the  whole  region  north  of  the  boundary.  Accordingly  on 
the  20th  of  July,  1848,  it  was  decreed  that  eighteen  Military 
Colonies  should  be  created,  and  placed  w^ithin  easy  communica- 
tion, so  as  to  protect  the  southern  settlers  in  some  degree,  or  to 
encounter  and  punish  the  savages  in  their  forays.  The  greater 
portions  of  the  most  warlike  tribes  were  transferred  by  the  treaty  to 
the  United  States,  and,  by  one  of  its  articles,  we  bound  ourselves 
to  aid,  at  least,  in  saving  the  Mexicans  from  their  plunder  if  we 
could  not  totally  destroy  their  inimical  power.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  boundary,  from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gila  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  mathematical  line,  before  alluded  to,  we  find  the 
tribes  known  as  Coyotes,  Mimbrenos  and  Gileiios,  the  former  of 
whom  wage  war  against  Sonora,  whilst  the  latter  attack  Chihua- 
hua. The  Apaches  and  Cumanches  spread  their  numerous  hordes 
from  the  vicinity  of  Chihuahua  to  the  sources  of  the  Nueces, 
twenty-five  leagues  beyond  the  Rio  Grande.  Besides  these,  there 
are,  throughout  this  district  many  savage  bands,  supporting  them- 
selves entirely  by  the  chase,  and  it  is  probable,  according  to 
the  opinion  of  soldiers  and  captives,  who  have  been  among  the 
tribes,  that  all  these  clans  can  unite  thirty  thousand  warriors,  whilst 
they  still  leave  a  sufficient  number  to  protect  their  wig\vams  and 
villages. 

Fortunately  for  the  w^hite  races,  these  barbarians  are  not  able  to 
maintain  peace  among  themselves.  The  Apaches  and  Cumanches 
are  in  continual  strife,  and  never  return  from  the  "war  path"  with- 
out serious  losses.  It  is  not  to  be  feared,  therefore,  that  they  will 
voluntarily  join  in  a  general  rising  against  our  pioneers ;  yet  a 
common  danger,  or  a  common  attack,  might  soon  cement  their 
hatred  against  the  supposed  usurper,  and,  directed  by  a  man  of 
capacity,  produce  even  a  more  disastrous  war  than  that  with  the 
Seminoles  of  Florida. 

The  Cumanches  are  numerous  and  active.     They  are  divided 


CHARACTER    OF    THE    TRIBES FORTRESSES.  123 

into  Caihuas,  Yamparicas,  and  Llaneros.  The  Apaches  are 
braver  than  the  Cumanches,  and  are  known  as  Meselaros  and 
Lipanes.  These  barbarians  arm  themselves  with  guns,  rifles,  lances, 
bows  and  arrows.  They  manage  their  weapons  admirably,  are 
agile  horsemen,  and  shoot  with  unerring  aim.  TaU  and  majestic 
in  figure ;  muscular  and  capable  of  enduring  fatigue ;  accustomed 
to  live  on  the  simplest  food  of  the  forest  and  to  win  it  when  neces- 
sary by  the  arrow  alone ;  uniting  the  sagacity  of  men  with  the  in- 
stinct of  animals,  these  knights  of  the  southern  wilderness  realize 
perfectly  our  ideas  of  the  daring  aborigines  who  peopled  this 
continent  before  it  was  subdued  by  the  white  man.  Their  hatred 
of  the  Mexicans  and  the  savage  fury  with  which  they  pursue  their 
male  captives  of  adult  age,  appear  to  denote  even  a  stronger,  if  not 
a  worthier  motive  than  robbery  in  their  attacks.  At  least  six  hun- 
dred women  and  children  are  borne  off  by  them  every  year  from  the 
settlements  to  their  mountain  fastnesses,  and  they  openly  confess 
that  they  are  not  unwilling  to  improve  their  race  by  mingling  it 
with  the  white. 

In  order  to  maintain  the  southern  frontier  intact  from  these  sav- 
ages, Mexico  designs  the  estabUshment  of  these  military  colonies, 
and  will,  in  all  probability,  support  them  by  a  second  or  rear  line 
of  troops  from  the  regular  army  as  well  as  by  forts  and  strongholds 
erected  in  positions  affording  easy  access  from  the  wilderness  to 
inhabited  regions.  A  frontier  so  open,  and  thronged  with  such 
barbarous  hordes,  could  not  be  protected  by  military  colonies  alone. 

The  principal  Fortresses  and  strongholds  of  Mexico  have 
hitherto  been  those  of  Perote,  Acapulco,  Ulua,  and  the  citadels  at 
Mexico  and  Monterey.  The  present  government  has  ordered  the 
citadel  of  Mexico,  situated  a  short  distance  out  of  the  town  to  be 
abandoned,  as  it  only  formed  a  nucleus  for  the  assemblage  of  the 
raihtary  factionists  who  have  constantly  disturbed  the  peace  of  the 
republic.  The  citadel  of  Monterey  is  to  be  maintained  and  suita- 
bly supported. 

The  castle  at  Acapulco,  an  extremely  important  point  on  the 
southern  or  Pacific  coast,  is  greatly  impaired,  and  will  require  at 
least  a  hundred  thousand  dollars  to  adapt  it  for  defence.  The 
fortress  of  Perote  was  designed  originally  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment as  a  depot  for  the  treasure  intended  for  shipment  from  Vera 
Cruz,  in  which  the  gold  and  silver  would  be  safer  than  at  an  ex- 
posed sea  port  during  that  dangerous  period  of  Castilian  history, 
when  all  the  nations  of  Europe  were  anxious  to  plunder  her  colo 


124       PEROTE ACAPULCO SAN  JUAN  DE  ULUA. 

nies.  Situated  far  in  the  interior  of  the  country  and  in  the  midst 
of  a  wide  plain,  it  does  not  absolutely  command  any  of  the  ap- 
proaches either  from  the  coast  to  the  inner  states,  or  to  the  coast 
from  the  capital.  It  is,  however,  well  placed  as  a  military  arsenal, 
and  demands  an  expenditure  of  about  thirty  thousand  dollars  to 
render  it  useful  to  the  nation. 

The  Castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua,  built  on  a  reef  opposite  the  town 
of  Vera  Cruz,  is  in  so  ruinous  a  state  that  scarcely  a  million  and  a 
half  of  dollars  will  suffice  to  restore  it  to  its  ancient  splendor  and 
power.  The  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  guns  now  within  its  walls 
are  all  more  or  less  injured  or  dismounted.  "To  garrison  this  Cas- 
tle properly,"  said  General  Arista  in  his  report  as  Minister  of  War 
in  1849,  "  two  thousand  men  will  be  required  at  a  yearly  cost  of 
four  hundred  thousand  dollars.  If  this  immense  treasure  is  squan- 
dered on  the  Castle,  it  will  surely  be  wasted  alone  to  preserve  a 
vain  luxury ;  for,  as  Mexico  has  no  hope  of  becoming  a  maritime 
power,  San  Juan  de  Ulua  must  always  fall  into  the  possession  of 
such  a  naval  nation  whenever  it  makes  war  upon  us.  Experienced 
Spanish  officers  have  recommended  the  dismantling  of  San  Juan, 
and  they  now  urge  it  more  strongly  than  ever,  as  there  is  far 
greater  reason  to  believe  that  it  neither  defends  the  nation  nor 
even  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz.  The  French,  and  recently  the  Ameri- 
cans, have  convinced  us  of  this  fact ;  the  first  possessed  themselves 
early  of  the  Castle,  and  the  latter  took  the  town  without  hindrance 
from  the  Castle."  Such  is  the  opinion  of  one  of  the  most  experi- 
enced Mexican  generals  in  regara  to  a  fortress  which  has  hitherto 
been  deemed  impregnable,  and,  although  we  do  not  agree  with  him 
in  regard  to  its  entire  worthlessness  in  the  hands  of  abler  engineers, 
we  doubt  whether  its  use  is  not  greater  in  checking  the  city  of  Vera 
Cruz  itself,  than  in  commanding  the  approaches  to  it  from  the 
sea.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  lee  of  this  very  Castle  is  the 
only  comparatively  safe  harbor  on  the  gulf  at  present,  and  that 
until  a  mole  or  breakwater  shall  be  erected  elsewhere,  it  is  only  in 
certain  seasons  and  under  favorable  circumstances  that  large  bodies 
of  troops  may  be  prudently  disembarked  on  the  adjacent  shores. 
The  landing  of  General  Scott,  in  1847,  was  singularly  fortunate  in 
time  and  circumstances,  for,  soon  after,  a  furious  norther  arose  and 
prevented  all  communication  between  the  land  and  the  squadron. 
These  violent  gales  are  sudden  and  terrific  in  their  rise  and  action 
at  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  dreadful  havoc  they  made  among  the  Ameri- 
can shipping  on  the  coast  during  the  war,  attests  the  value  of  a 
military  defence  whose  protective  duties  are  seconded  by  the  very 


RE-ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    ARMY.  125 

spirit  of  the  storm.  The  introduction  of  steam  power  into  the 
national  marine  must  of  course  greatly  modify  the  character  of 
coast  defences ;  but  we  would  deem  it  not  only  unwise  but  imbecile 
to  abandon  altogether  a  work  which  at  least  makes,  if  it  does  not 
perfectly  protect,  an  important  harbor.  The  city  of  Vera  Cruz, 
itself,  is  a  regular  fortification,  and  with  some  important  improve- 
ments and  repairs,  may  not  ultimately  require  San  Juan  de  Ulua  to 
defend  it  from  assault.  These  two  strongholds,  combined,  under  the 
command  of  skilful  generals  and  garrisoned  with  efficient  soldiers, 
would  offer  a  churlish  welcome  to  any  modern  power  either  mari- 
time or  military.  Their  seizure,  during  the  winter  months  of 
tempest,  would  be  almost  impossible,  and  their  occupation,  during 
the  summer  would  be  as  fatal,  as  was  unfortunately  proved  by  our 
troops  in  the  June,  July,  and  August,  after  the  brilliant  siege  and 
inglorious  surrender. 

The  following  tabular  sketch  prepared  from  Ministerial  reports, 
exhibits  the  condition  of  the  Mexican  forces  at  this  epoch. 

Tabular  View  of  the  Re-organization  of   the  Mexican  Army 

IN  1849. 
staff  of  the  army. 
12  Generals  of  divisions.  13  Captains. 

34  Brigadier  generals.  8  Lieutenants  and  2d  adjudants. 

4  Colonels.  3  Ensigns. 

5  Licutenent  Colonels.  — 

1  Commandant  of  battalion.  80  Total. 

engineer  corps.  medical  staff,  according  to  law. 

1  Brigadier  general.  1  Inspector. 

2  Colonels.  1  Director  of  hospital. 
4  Lieutenant  colonels.  8  Hospital  professors. 
8  Captains.  40  Surgeons. 

—  40  1st  assistant  surgeons. 

15  Total.  40  2d 

30  Apprentices. 

18  Surgeons  for  military  colonies 
2  Ambulance  companies. 

materiel  of  the  army. 

In  actual  service 

1  Battalion  of  sappers,     .     399  individuals  required  by  law,     .     220 
8  Battalions  of  infantry,     6000         "  "  '"  .     3526 

12  Squadrons  of  cavalry,   .  1800         "  "  "  .1911 

2  Battalions  of  artillery,     1800         "  "  "  .       554 


Required  by  law,  9999  Only  in  service,  5211 


126  TABULAR    VltW    OF    MEN    AND    MATERIEL. 

THE    ARMY    AS    REQUIRED    BY    LAW    OP    4tH    NOVEMBER,     1848. 

17  Colonels. 

16  Lieutenant  colonels. 

11  Commanders  of  squadrons,   battalions   and   chiefs  of  division. 

92  Captains. 

108  2d  adjudants,  and  lieutenants. 
176  Sub-adjudants,  sub-lieutenants  and  ensigns. 

17  Chaplains. 

133  1st  Serjeants;  tambour  majors;  armorers;  smiths. 
384  2d  Serjeants. 
1124  Corporals. 
356  Musicians. 
7954  Privates. 

32  Wagon  masters. 
196  Drivers. 
54  Arrieros. 

1800  Cavalry  horses. 
214  Artillery  horses. 
687  Mules  for  purposes  of  traction. 
422  Pack  mules. 

Table  of  Militia  required  in  Actual  Service  by  a  Decree  op 
1st  December,  1847. 


For  6  active  companies  in  Alvarado,  Tchu- 
antepec,  Tuspan,  Acayucan,  Acapulco. 


For  the  battalion  of  Tampico. 

1  Lieutenant  colonel, 

No.  on  the  list. 

Of  these  there  are  iu 
actual  service. 
.          1 

1  1st  adjudant — a  captain, 
1  Chaplain, 

4  Captains,     .         .         .         . 

5  Lieutenants, 

6     . 
6 

1 

7 
.      7 

9  Sub-lieutenants, 

12     . 

5 

5  1st  Serjeants, 
16  2d 

6 

.       24     . 

.5 
14 

12  Musicians, 

18 

.     17 

53  Corporals,  .         .         .         . 
400  Privates, 

78     . 
.   600 

16 
.  181 

486  Total, 


726 


233 


NAVY EXTENT    OF    COAST    ON    BOTH     SEAS. 


127 


In 


RRISONS    IN    THE    REPUB 

Lie. 

ARTILLERY. 

Guadalajara, 
Zacatecas,     . 

1 

.    2 

Guns 

San  Juan  de  Ulua, 
Perote, 

and  mortara, 
124 
.       35 

Jalapa, 
Perote, 

4 
.    1 

Acapulco, 
Vera  Cruz,    . 

22 
.     113 

Vera  Cruz, 

2 

Monterey, 

Puebla, 
Mexico,    . 

.    3 

7 

Campeche,    . 
Mazatlan, 

•     ••• 

Queretaro,     . 

Guanajuato, 

S.  P\.'rnando  do  Rosas, 

.    1 

2 
.   2 

Mexico, 
Tabasco,     . 
Guadalajara,  . 

6 
1 
9 

Matanioros, 

1 

San  Luis  Potosi, 

8 

Tampico, 

San  Luis  Potosi, 

.    1 

2 

Chiapas, 
Chihuahua, 

.      2 

Oajaca, 

.    1 

Bustamante's  division, 

.       4 

30  324 

Total  number  oi  projectiles,  52,019. 
The  field  artillery  consists  of  16  batteries. 

Navy. 

The  coast  of  the  republic,  now  greatly  reduced  by  the  treaty  of 
Gu:ulalu})o,  exlends  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from  the  Rio  Grande 
or  Kio  JJravo  del  Norte,  to  the  port  of  Bacalar  on  the  east  of  the 
peninsula  of  Yucatan,  and  comprehends  in  this  distance,  about  five 
hundred  and  eighty-four  leagues.  The  Pacific  coast  begins  one 
league  from  San  ])icgo  in  Lower  California,  and  terminates  at  the 
Barra  de  Ocos  in  the  Gulf  of  Tehuantepec,  a  distance  of  one  thou- 
sand five  hundred  and  twenty  leagues,  including  the  coasts  of  the 
Gulf  of  California,  or  sea  of  Cortez.  Consequently  the  coasts  of 
the  republic  extend,  in  all,  two  thousand  one  hundred  and  four 
leagues,  demonstrating  the  admirable  situation  of  this  country  for 
commerce  with  all  the  world.  The  ports  which  are  open  for  foreign 
trade  in  the  Mexican  Gulf,  are  Matamoros,  Tampico,  Vera  Cruz 
Campeche,  Sisal,  and  the  island  of  Carmen ;  while,  on  the  Pacific, 
there  are  the  ports  of  Guayamas,  Mazatlan,  San  Bias,  Manzanillo, 
and  Acapulco,  the  latter  of  these  being  the  best  in  the  possession 
of  Mexico,  on  the  great  western  ocean.  Its  harbor  is  excellent ; 
its  distance  from  the  capital  is  comparatively  short ;  its  population 
is  larger  than  that  of  other  towns  on  the  coast,  and  in  consequence 
of  the  difficulty  of  landing  elsewhere  than  in  the  actual  port,  the 
government  is  effectually  secured  against  illicit  trade.     It  is  a  site 


12S  XATAL  ESTABLISHMEXT VESSELS- 

which  should  unquestionably  be  protected  and  fostered,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  advantages  we  have  mentioned,  but  because  it  will 
become  a  source  of  riches  to  the  new  state  of  Guerrero,  whose 
government  will  contribute  to  cement  the  peace  and  tend  to  estab- 
lish the  permanent  dominion  of  good  order  in  that  quarter. 

The  navy  of  all  countries  originates  in  their  commerce,  but 
Mexico,  althou^  situated  as  we  have  shown  most  advantageously 
for  trade,  has  hitherto  possessed  but  few  merchantmen  and  a  small 
marine.  The  vessels  of  war  owned  by  the  republic,  previous  to 
the  conflict  with  the  United  States,  were  either  sold,  or  disarmed, 
dismantled  and  laid  up,  when  the  nation  was  menaced  with  an  at- 
tack. It  was  evident  to  the  Mexican  cabinet,  that  the  navj-  could 
not  cope  with  ours,  and  in  order  to  prevent  its  total  loss,  the  few 
vessels  were  voluntarily  withdrawn  from  the  sea.  The  officers, 
however,  were  generally  employed  in  land  duties  during  the  con- 
test, and  most  of  them  remained  in  service  untd  the  summer  of 
1848,  when  the  most  efficient  were  permanently  confirmed  in  their 
employments,  whilst  the  rest  were  allowed  to  retire  on  unlimited 
leave. 

In  considering  the  actual  condition  of  the  national  trade  and 
treasury,  the  government  did  not  believe,  on  the  re-establishment 
of  peace,  that  it  would  be  justified  in  creating  at  once  an  extensive 
naval  establishment,  nevertheless  it  was  convinced  that  the  security 
of  the  coasts,  the  protection  of  its  own  small  trade,  and  the  interest 
of  its  maritime  custom  houses,  rendered  the  creation  of  q.  flotilla  in- 
dispensable. With  this  view  the  minister  of  war  and  marine  re- 
commended in  1849  the  naval  establishment  which  is  shown  in  the 
following  table. 

Naval  Establishmejtt  of  Mexico,  1849. 

The  actual  naval  force  consists  at  present  of  1  schooner  only; 
but  the  secretary  of  war  recommended,  in  addition,  the  construc- 
tion of: 

1  steamer  mounting   \   ^  '""''f  ^^  P^^^^^-  ^^^  ^  '^^'^    ^^ 
°    I       pounders. 

2  cutters  suitable  for  coast  service,  capable  of  passing  the  shal- 
low bars  of  rivers,  of  70  or  7.5  tons,  and  carrying  1  swivel  18 
pounder,  and  one  12  pounder  each. 

4  launches  of  20  oars,  each  of  which  must  be  capable  of  carry- 
ing an  18  pounder. 


EXPENSES 

OF    WAB 

OSens. 

1=  Sei 

f  Captains  de  .V«rw, 
de  f^metU. 

3 
.     6 

1st  Lieotenant,  . 

•2d          -           .     .         . 

1 

1 

1st  Midshipmen, 
•2d 

— 

Intendente^:. 

o 

Commissaries, 

1 

1"  Officiales. 

4 

2"        ■• 

5 

r          . 

4 

Clerks, 

- 

1^ 


On  LeiT« 


11 
4 
1 


.  11 

< 

.  11 


Expenses  of  War  axd  Navy  of  Mexico,  lS4d,  estimatep 

BY    the    MlXISTEK- 


Ministrv  of  \rar  and  navy.      ..... 

Supreme  tribunal  of  war.  ...... 

Staff  of  the  armv, 

of  the  president,        ...... 

Heacquarters  of  the  army,     ..... 

C:--:i.'7dancia4:  gtmertJes  mmd  miliijores. 

Ikiall  de  plazas,     ....... 

Enjsineers,  sappers,  militarr  ccdlege  and  schcvrl. 
Permanejit  aruUery,  political  ministry,  woffkmen  and 

bag-^a^.  train.     ...... 

S  Battalions  oi  permanent  infantry,    .         .         .         .1 

1  Batralion  of  active  infantry  and  6  companies 
1^2  squadrons  of  permanent  cavalry  in  6  corps. 
Military  colonies.  ...... 

Medical  staff  and  ambulance  companies,     . 
Expenses  at  San  Luis.   ..... 

Invalids, 

Staffs  of  the  army,  divisions  and  brigades, 

Officers  who  by  the  law  of  4th  November.  1S49,  are  to 

receive  unlimited  leave, 
Oificers  on  unlimited  leave.    ... 

•'      retired,  ..... 

Disbanded  troops,  .... 

Widows,  orphans,  and  pensioners, 
Rewards  for  bravery,      .... 
For  military  hospitals  and  extra?. 
For  improvement  and  repair  of  military  barrack: 
Contract  for  mules  for  artillery  trains, 
Extra  expenses  of  war,  .         .         .         . 

Expenses  of  establishment  of  military  colonies, 
Military  commission  of  statistics. 
Naval  employes,  ^^military  and  political,)    . 


S-2.770. 
1S3,500. 

10.34O. 

o0.3<>9. 
•234.37S. 

10.3-20. 
•21S.7SS. 

670,9S5. 

.•2<>0.5tf7. 

'253,109. 

6-2S,SS6. 

7-27,d7-2. 

144.0-2O. 

5.03S. 

S4, 1-2-2, 

43,4430. 

3'2S,(>44. 

-x**.  iO». 

t>6S.614. 
101,-2S3. 
403.4i>9. 

15. '295. 
100.000. 

30.-241. 

34,S7o. 
500.000. 
49S.635. 

1-2.09S. 

55.0-23. 


.0..06 
.7.-00 
.0..00 
.4..00 
-2..06 
,5..00 
0..00 
,5..06 

0..00 
1..00 
,7.. 06 
.0..00 
0..00 
4..00 
,-2..00 
7..06 
.3..00 

.0..06 
.5..  10 
,1..07 
.3..00 
.•2..06 
.6..07 
.0..00 
.0..00 
.6..00 
,0..00 
4..00 
0..00 
7..00 


Total  expenses  war  and  navy  in  1S49, 


$7.6So.'33..6..06 


CHAPTER    XI. 
THE   MEXICAN    CHURCH. 


RELATIONS    BETWEEN    THE    MEXICAN    CHURCH    AND    THE    POPE.  — 

CLERGY,    MONKS,    NUNS,    MONASTERIES,     CONVENTS. WEALTH 

OF     THE      CHURCH. RATIO    OF    CLERGY    AND     PEOPLE.  HIGH 

AND  LOW  CLERGY THEIR  HISTORY VICES. MONKS RURAL 

CLERGY THEIR    CHARACTER. CONDUCT    OF    CLERGY,    PUBLIC 

AND    PRIVATE. MISSIONS  IN  CALIFORNIA MODE  OF  CONVER- 
SION.  MONKS    IN    MEXICO ZAVALa's  STRICTURES. PAZO's 

STRICTURES    ON    SOUTH    AMERICAN    CLERGY. CHURCH    IN    THE 

UNITED    STATES    AND     IN    MEXICO.  CONSTITUTIONAL     PROTEC- 
TION    OF     CATHOLICISM. DUTY    OF    THE     CHURCH  BULLS 

PAPER    MONEY. 

The  relations  existing  between  the  Mexican  church  and  the 
Papal  throne  were  interrupted  by  the  revolution.  Spain  and  her 
monarchs  had  ever  been  distinguished  and  faithful  defenders  of  the 
Catholic  church,  and  had  maintained  its  power  carefully  through- 
out all  their  American  possessions.  The  pope  therefore  regarded 
the  revolution  not  only  as  unfavorable  to  the  interest  of  his  allies, 
but  as  calculated  in  all  probability  to  introduce  ecclesiastical  as 
well  as  political  liberty  into  regions  of  which  his  ministers  pos- 
sessed the  entire  dominion.  Hence  the  famous  encyclical  letter 
of  his  Holiness  of  the  24th  of  September,  1824,  directed  to  the 
Heads  of  the  American  church,  in  which  he  anathematizes  the 
doctrines  and  principles  upon  which  the  revolution  was  founded. 
But,  yielding  in  the  end  to  circumstances,  and  probably  reassured 
by  the  article  in  the  first  constitution  of  Mexico  —  not  yet  promul- 
gated when  his  letter  saw  the  light  —  by  which  the  Catholic  faith 
was  permanently  confirmed  as  the  national  religion,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  all  others,  he  received  the  rebellious  nation  once  more  into 
his  flock,  as  soon  as  the  Mexican  government  sought  readmission. 
This  reconciliation  was  negotiated  upon  the  same  terms  that  ex- 
isted during  the  Spanish  dominion. 

Even  from  the  epoch  of  Iturbide's  rule  this  delicate  subject  had 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  rulers,  and  in  1825  an  envoy  was  sent 


CLERGY,  MONKS,  NUNS,  MONASTERIES,  CONVENTS.     !31 

to  Rome.  The  ecclesiastical  Junto  which  met  in  Mexico,  had 
striven  to  reinvest  the  Metropolitan  with  the  ancient  right  of  institu- 
ting suffragan  bishops ;  but  the  canonical  right  has  continued  in  the 
Pope,  on  the  presentation  of  the  government.  Nevertheless,  efforts 
have  been  made  to  extend,  substantially  the  metropolitan  powers  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Mexico,  of  whom  it  was  probably  desired  to 
make  the  true  head  of  the  national  church,  dependent  however  upon 
the  Roman  Pontiff. 

There  were  in  Mexico,  according  to  the  best  accessible  official 
dates,  in  1826 
I  Archbishop. 
9  Bishops,  in  9  Bishoprics. 

1  Collegiate  Chief  at  the  Collegiate  Church  of  Guadalupe. 
185  Prebends,  (79  vacancies  thereof,  in  1826.) 

1194  Parishes,  of  one,  two,  or  more  churches. 

9  Seminaries  (conciliares.) 
3677  Clergymen  (1240  engaged  in  curacies)  and  the  rest  in  semi- 
naries, ecclesiastical  cures,  vicarages,  &c.) 

5  Religious  orders,  owning 

155  Monasteries  ;  in  which  there  were 
1918  Monks  ;  of  whom 
40  Served  curacies  and 
106  Missions. 

In  47  of  these  monasteries  there  were  more  than  twelve  monks, 
tnd  in  thirty-nine  there  were  less  than  five. 

6  Colleges  de  Propaganda  Fid6,  containing 
307  Clergymen  ;  of  whom 

61   Served  in  missions. 

2  Congregaciones,  with  60  presbyters. 

58  Convents ;  with 
1931  Nuns, 
622  Girls, 
1475  Servants. 

Summary  of  Ecclesiastical  Persons. 

7999  Clergymen,  friars  and  nuns. 
2097  Servants  and  girls  in  convents. 

Since  the  epoch  of  independence  the  orders  of  Juaninos,  Bele- 
mites,  and  San  Lazaro,  have  been  extinguished. 


132  WEALTH  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

In  1844,  when  the  last  accurate  summary  of  the  Mexican  church, 
within  our  reach,  was  made,  the  following  was  the  condition : 

Summary  of  Mexican  Church  in  1844. 

In  this  year  the  possessions  in  conventual  establishments  of  the 
Regular  Orders,  was  estimated  as  follows  : 

Dominicans,       ....  25  Conventual  establishments 

Franciscans,  .  .         .  68  "  " 

Agustines,  ....  22  "  « 

Carmelites, 16  "  « 

Mercedarios,      ....  19  "  " 

Total,  .         .         .  150  Conventual  establishments 

Regular  Ecclesiastics  :  —  Monks,      ....     1,700 

Nuns,     ....        2,000 


3,700 
Secular  Clergy,    .......  3,500 


Total  number  in  religious  orders,  ....         7,200 

The  actual  property  of  this  establishment  has  been  variously  esti- 
mated since  the  earliest  period  in  which  Mexican  institutions  have 
been  described  by  European  writers.  The  church  in  Mexico  is 
known  to  be  immensely  rich,  and  that  its  real  and  personal  property 
has  been  carefully  managed  by  the  large  body  of  intelligent  men 
who  control  its  affairs.  They  prudently  make  no  public  or  statis- 
tical expositions  of  their  interests. 

In  1807,  Abad  y  Quiepo,  in  a  communication  to  Don  Manuel 
Sexto  Espinosa,  estimated  the  wealth  of  the  church  as  follows  : 

Real  estate,  from  $2,500,000  to         ....     $  3,000,000 
Personal  investments  for  secular  clergy  in  9  bishoprics,    26,000,000 
Obras  Pias  in  the  church,  of  ecclesiastics  of  both  sexes,       2,500,000 
Total  fund  of  the  churches  and  communities  of  ecclesi- 
astics of  both  sexes,  16,000,000 


Total,  .         .         .         .         .         .         $47,500,000 


In  1831,  Don  Jos6  Maria  Mora,  a  Mexican  writer,  estimated  the 
property  of  the  church  at  a  valuation  of  at  least  $75,000,000  * 

'  Mejico  in  1842  by  del  Rivero.     Madrid,  1844. 


RATIO    OF    CLERGY    AND    PEOPLt..  133 

In  1844,  —  and  we  may  consider  it  nearly  the  same  in  1850,  — 
the  church  property  was  calculated  as  follows  : 

Real  estate  —  urban  and  rural,  ....         $18,000,000 

Churches,  houses,  convents,  curates'  dwellings,  furniture, 

jewels,  sacred  vessels  and  other  personalities,           .         52,000.000 
Floating  capital,  various  funds  in  ecclesiastical  treasuries, 
and  the  capital  required  to  produce  the  sum  annually 
received   by   the  Mexican    clergy  in    alms,    diezmos, 
dues,  &c.  &c., 20,000,000 


Total, $90,000,000 

The  real  estate  of  the  church  is  estimated  by  Senor  Otero,  — 
from  whose  work  on  the  social  and  political  condition  of  Mexico, 
this  calculation  is  taken,  —  to  have  been  worth  at  least  25  per  cent, 
more  before  the  revolution ;  and,  to  this  increased  value  must  be 
added  about  $115,000,000  of  capital  founded  on  contribuciones, 
derechos  reales,  and  other  imposts  which  were  laid  on  the  property 
of  the  country  for  the  benefit  of  the  clergy.  * 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  2,000  nuns  are  of  ecclesiastical 
importance  except  for  charitable  and  educational  purposes  ;  —  if  we 
deduct  their  number,  therefore,  from  the  1,700  monks  and  3,500 
secular  clergy,  we  shall  have  only  3,200  men  devoted  to  the  spi- 
ritual wants  of  more  than  seven  and  a  half  millions  or,  2,383  in- 
dividuals assigned  to  the  ecclesiastical  charge  of  each  priest,  monk 
or  curate.  And  yet,  among  these  men,  chiefly,  the  avails  of  pro- 
bably more  than  $90,000,000  of  property  are  to  be  annually  dis- 
tributed or  consolidated  in  a  country  ^rom  which  they  are  constantly 
asking  alms  instead  of  bestowing  them^ 

The  value  of  their  churches,  the  extent  of  their  city  property,  the 
power  they  possess  as  lenders  and  mortgagees  in  Mexico,  where 
there  are  no  banks,  and  the  enormous  masses  of  church  plate, 
golden  ornaments  and  jewels,  will  swell  the  above  statements  and 
estimates  of  the  church's  wealth  to  nearer  one  hundred  millions  than 
ninety,  or  to  about  $88,000,000  less  than  it  was  before  the  rebellion 
against  Spain ;  at  which  period  the  number  of  ecclesiastics  was 
about  10,000;  or  13,000,  if  the  lay  brethren  and  subordinates  are 
included  in  the  ecclesiastical  census.  ^ 

'  See  Olero  Cuestion  Social  y  Politica  de  Mejico,  pp.  38,  39,  43. 
*  Mexico  as  it  Was  and  Is,  p»  329. 


134         HIGH    AND    LOW    CLERGY THEIR    HISTORY VICES. 

The  higher  clergy  of  Mexico  which  was  once  the  depository  of 
science  and  general  learning,  is  now  only  distinguished  for  its  ele- 
gant manners  and  aristocratic  tendencies.  Notwithstanding  some 
members  of  the  church,  in  orders  and  belonging  to  this  class,  were 
engaged  in  the  revolutionary  struggle,  and  essentially  aided  in 
making  it  effective,  the  spirit  of  the  remainder,  as  a  body,  was  in 
reality,  antagonistic  to  the  movement.  The  course  of  the  lower 
clergy^  however,  was  different.  The  members  of  this  grade  threw 
themselves  early  into  the  rebellion,  and  sustained  it  heroically  in  its 
most  dangerous  epochs,  until  it  triumphed  in  independence. 

Although  there  is  in  Mexico  great  religious  devotion  to  the 
church,  regular  observance  of  its  feasts,  fasts  and  ceremonies,  and 
obedience  to  its  commands,  there  prevails,  nevertheless,  consider- 
able indifference  towards  its  ministers,  who,  in  too  many  cases  have 
justly  forfeited  popular  respect.  The  curas  have  united  themselves 
effectually  with  the  interests  and  affections  of  the  people  in  the 
rural  districts  where  they  pass  the  ordinary,  regular  life  of  country 
folks  remote  from  the  dissipating  influence  of  cities.  They  are 
amiable  men,  prudent  counsellors  of  all  classes,  and  the  hospitable 
hosts  of  every  stranger  who  visits  their  parishes.  But,  in  many  of 
the  towns  and  cities  large  numbers  of  the  clergy,  both  secular  and 
regular,  have  forfeited  the  personal  esteem  of  the  high  and  low  by 
their openparticipation  in  common  social  vices.  "These  vices  have 
augmented  in  proportion  as  the  bonds  of  discipline  have  been 
loosened  by  the  distracted  condition  of  the  country.  Gambling 
and  dissipation  are  rooted  in  the  clergy  as  w^ell  as  in  other  classes 
of  society ;  but  we  may  specially  declare  that  the  convents  of  friars, 
with  few  exceptions,  are  in  Mexico,  sewers  of  corruption. "  ' 
This  frail  condition  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  was  satisfactorily 
proved  by  the  state  in  which  the  Catholic  church  of  the  United 
States  found  the  parishes  of  Texas  at  the  period  of  annexation ; 
and,  it  is  likely,  that  many  more  flagrant  instances  of  laxity  will  be 
unveiled  in  New  Mexico  and  California,  to  whose  distant  regions 
our  enlightened  and  pure  Catholic  clergymen  are  already  directing 
their  attention  with  honest  and  pious  zeal. 

The  Spanish  government  cherished  the  church,  for  state  as  well 
as  religious  reasons.  The  mayorazos  or  rights  of  primogeniture, 
which  bestowed  the  great  bulk  of  patrimonial  estates  upon  the 
eldest  son,  necessarily  forced  the  younger  offspring  of  distinguished 
houses  either  into  the  army  or  into  the  church ;  and,  hence  the 
splendid  eleemosynary  establishments  which  were  erected  and  en 

'  RiverojMejico  in  1842,  p.  130. 


MONKS  RURAL    CLERGY THEIR    CHARACTER.  135 

dowed  all  over  Mexico,  cis  much  for  the  comfort  of  these  drones 
of  the  social  hive,  as  for  the  worship  and  glory  of  God.  Most  of 
the  lucrative  benefices  came  in  this  manner  into  the  hands  of  the 
Spaniards  and  their  descendants ;  and  by  far  the  greater  portion  of 
the  higher  ecclesiastics  were,  either  influentially  allied,  or  were 
persons  of  elevated  social  rank.  Thus  it  is  that  even  at  the  pre- 
sent day  so  many  men  of  distinguished  manners  and  monarchical 
tendencies,  are  found  among  the  "  high  clergy  "  of  Mexico  ;  for 
the  epoch  of  the  revolution  is  not  so  distant  that  the  old  ecclesias- 
tical stock  has  entirely  departed  from  earth. 

But  since  the  laws  of  primogeniture  have  been  abolished,  —  and, 
with  them,  the  ecclesiastical  privilege  of  enforcing  the  payment  of 
tithes  to  the  clergy,  —  the  church  has  been  no  longer  regarded  by 
the  best  classes  as  a  favorite  resort  or  refuge  for  their  children. 
The  revolution,  as  we  have  said,  disorganized  the  establishment 
and  infused  inferior  men  into  the  sacred  ranks.  The  material  of 
the  several  brotherhoods  degenerated  in  quality  if  not  in  quantity. 
The  irregularities  of  the  friars  became  proverbial  throughout  the 
republic,  and  respectable  families  regarded  it  as  a  calamity,  or, 
even  sometimes,  as  a  degradation,  to  hear  their  members  pronounce 
a  monastic  vow.  Thus,  whilst  the  church  became  unpopular 
among  the  upper  classes  as  a  means  of  subsistence,  —  its  numbers 
were  gradually  filled  and  maintained  from  the  humbler  ranks,  whose 
ignorance  and  disorderly  habits  tend  more  and  more  to  widen  the 
difference  between  the  secular  and  the  regular  clergy  of  the  repub- 
lic. It  is  needless  to  dwell  on  the  baleful  influence  which  such 
debased  and  pretended  ministers  of  religion,  must  exercise  among 
the  common  classes  of  a  society  over  which  their  ecclesiastical 
authority  and  the  sanctity  of  their  profession  gives  them  control  in 
such  a  country  as  Mexico. 

We  deem  it  proper  to  sustain  the  allegations  made  especially 
against  a  large  number  of  the  Mexican  clergy  by  citations  from 
American,  English  and  Spanish  authors  upon  the  country,  in 
addition  to  the  quotation  already  given  from  Rivero's  "  Mexico 
in  1842." 

Mr.  Norman,  in  his  Rambles  in  Yucatan,  whilst  graphically  de- 
scribing certain  festivals,  and  among  them  those  of  Christmas  and 
the  Purification  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  says  :  —  "  The  people  tes- 
tify their  respect  for  those  festal  days,  —  for  so  they  are  denomi- 
nated,—  by  processions  and  such  amusements  as  are  suited.  Not- 
withstanding the  acknowledged  debasing  effects  of  their  sports  and 


136  CONDUCT    OF    CLERGY PUBLIC    AND    PRIVATE. 

pastimes,  which  consist  wholly  of  bull  baiting,  cock  fighting  and 
gambling,  they  are  not  disgraced  by  either  riotousness  or  drunken- 
ness. *  *  *  The  priests  give  countenance  to  these  recrea- 
tions, if  they  may  be  so  called,  both  by  their  presence  and  partici- 
pation.^ *  #  *  rpj^g  men,  women,  and  children,  as  soon  as  thej 
had  concluded  their  ceremonies,  started,  in  a  body,  with  revolt 
mg  precipitation,  to  the  gaming  tables,  which  had  been  set  fortl 
in  the  ruins  of  an  old  convent  adjoining  the  sanctuary  where  the 
procession  had  just  been  dissolved.  Here  we  found  all  classes  of 
society,  male  and  female.  The  highest  ecclesiastical  and  civil  dig- 
nitaries were  there,  hob  and  nob  with  the  most  common  of  the 
multitude. "2  *  *  *  Such  is  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Norman  as 
to  some  of  the  disgraceful  habits  of  the  clergy  in  Yucatan.  Mr. 
Stephens  in  his  travels  in  the  same  Mexican  state,  remarks  that 
"  except  at  Merda  and  Campeche,  where  they  are  more  immedi- 
ately under  the  eyes  of  the  bishop,  the  padres,  throughout 
Yucatan,  to  relieve  the  tedium  of  convent  life,  have  compagneraSy 
or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  hermanas  politicas,  or,  sisters 
in  law.  *  ******** 

"  Some  look  on  this  arrangement  as  a  little  irregular,  but,  in 
general,  it  is  regarded  only  as  an  amiable  weakness,  and  I  ara  safe 
in  saying  that  it  is  considered  a  recommendation  to  a  village  padre^ 
as  it  is  supposed  to  give  him  settled  habits,  as  marriage  does  with 
laymen ;  and,  to  give  my  own  honest  opinion,  which  I  did  not  in- 
tend to  do,  it  is  less  injurious  to  good  morals  than  the  by  no  means 
uncommon  consequences  of  celibacy  which  are  found  in  some  other 
Catholic  countries.  The  padre  in  Yucatan  stands  in  the  position 
of  a  married  man,  and  performs  all  the  duties  pertaining  to  the 
head  of  a  family.  Persons  of  what  is  considered  a  respectable 
standing  in  a  village,  do  not  shun  left  hand  marriages  with  a  padre. 
Still  it  was  to  us  always  a  matter  of  regret  to  meet  with  individuals 
of  worth,  and  whom  we  could  not  help  esteeming,  standiijig  in  what 
could  not  but  be  considered  a  false  position.  To  return  to  the 
case  with  which  I  set  out ;  —  the  padre  in  question  was  universally 
spoken  of  as  a  man  of  good  conduct,  a  sort  of  pattern  padre  for 
correct,  steady  habits ;  sedate,  grave  and  middle  aged,  and  appa- 
rently the  last  man  to  have  an  eye  for  such  a  pretty  compagneray^ 

A^  the  United  States  is  now  interested  in  the  history  of  Califor- 
nia, it  may  not  be  uninteresting  or  unprofitable,  in  illustrating  this 

'  Norman's  Rambles  in  Yucatan,  p.  32.  ^  ib.  p.  91. 

'  Stephens'  Travels  in  Yucatan,  vol.  2,  page  115. 


MISSIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA.  137 

subject,  to  exhibit  the  mode  of  ecclesiastical  operations  in  regard 
to  proselytes  in  that  region,  at  a  recent  period. 

"  At  a  particular  time  of  the  year,"  we  are  told  by  Captain 
Beechey  and  Mr.  Forbes,  "when  the  Indians  can  be  spared  from 
the  agricultural  concerns  of  the  establishment,  many  of  them  are 
permitted  to  take  the  launch  of  the  mission  and  make  excursions  to 
the  Indian  territory.  On  these  occasions  the  padres  desire  them 
to  induce  as  many  of  their  unconverted  brethren  as  possible  to  ac- 
company them  back  to  the  mission,  of  course  implying  that  this  is 
to  be  done  only  by  persuasion ;  but  the  boat  being  furnished  with  a 
cannon  and  musketry,  and  in  every  respect  equipped  for  war,  it  too 
often  happens  that  the  neophytes  and  the  gente  de  razon,  who  super- 
intend the  direction  of  the  boat,  avail  themselves  of  their  superi- 
ority, with  the  desire  of  ingratiating  themselves  with  their  masters 
and  of  receiving  a  reward.  There  are,  besides,  repeated  acts  of 
aggression  which  it  is  necessary  to  punish,  but  all  of  which  furnish 
proselytes.  Women  and  children  are  generally  the  first  objects  of 
capture,  as  their  husbands  and  parents  sometimes  voluntarily  fol- 
low them  into  captivity. 

"  One  of  these  proselyting  expeditions  into  their  Indian  territory 
occurred  during  the  period  of  Captain  Beechey's  visit  in  1826, 
which  ended  in  a  battle,  with  the  loss,  in  the  first  instance,  of 
thirty-four  of  the  converted,  and  eventually  in  the  gain,  by  a 
second  expedition  sent  to  avenge  the  losses  of  the  first,  of  forty 
women  and  children  of  the  invaded  tribes.  These  were  immedi- 
ately enrolled  in  the  list  of  the  mission,  and  were  nearly  as  imme- 
diately converted  into  Christians.  The  process  by  which  this  was 
effected  is  so  graphically  described  by  Captain  Beechey  that  it 
would  be  doing  him  injustice  to  use  any  words  but  his  own. 

"  I  happened,  he  says,  to  visit  the  mission  about  this  time  and 
saw  these  unfortunate  beings  under  tuition.  They  were  clothed 
in  blankets,  and  arranged  in  a  row  before  a  blind  Indian,  who  un- 
derstood their  dialect,  and  was  assisted  by  an  alcalde  to  keep 
order.  Their  tutor  began  by  desiring  them  to  kneel,  informing 
them  that  he  was  going  to  teach  them  the  names  of  the  persons  com- 
posing the  Trinity,  and  that  they  were  to  repeat  in  Spanish  what 
he  dictated.  The  neophytes  being  thus  arranged,  the  speaker  be- 
gan: "Santissama  Trinidad, — Dios,  Jesu  Christo,  Espiritu  Santo" 
— pausing  between  each  name,  to  listen  if  the  simple  Indians,  who 
had  never  spoken  a  Spanish  word  before,  pronounced  it  correctly 
or  any  thing  near  the  mark.  After  they  had  repeated  these  names 
satisfactorily,  their  blind  tutor,  after  a  pause,  added   "Santos"  — 


138  MODE    OF    CONVERSION. 

and  recapitulated  the  names  of  a  great  many  saints,  which  finished 
the  morning's  tuition. 

"  After  a  few  days,  no  doubt  these  promising  pupils  were  chris- 
tened, and  admitted  to  all  the  benefits  and  privileges  of  Christians 
and  gente  de  razon.  Indeed,  I  believe  that  the  act  of  making  the 
cross  and  kneeling  at  proper  times,  and  other  such  like  mechanical 
rites,  constitute  no  small  part  of  the  religion  of  these  poor  people. 
The  rapidity  of  the  conversion  is,  however,  frequently  stimulated 
by  practices  much  in  accordance  with  the  primary  kidnapping  of 
the  subjects.  If,  as  not  unfrequently  happens,  any  of  the  captured 
Indians  show  a  repugnance  to  conversion,  it  is  the  practice  to  im- 
prison them  for  a  few  days,  and  then  allow  them  to  breathe  a  little 
fresh  air  in  a  walk  round  the  mission,  to  observe  the  happy  mode 
of  life  of  their  converted  countrymen ;  after  which  they  are  again 
shut  up,  and  thus  continue  incarcerated  until  they  declare  their 
readiness  to  renounce  the  religion  of  their  forefathers.'  As  might 
be  believed,  the  ceremonial  exercises  of  the  Roman  Catholic  reli- 
gion, occupy  a  considerable  share  of  the  time  of  these  people. 
Mass  is  performed  twice  daily,  besides  high-days  and  holydays, 
when  the  ceremonies  are  much  grander  and  of  longer  duration  ; 
and  at  all  the  performances  every  Indian  is  obliged  to  attend  under 
the  penalty  of  a  whipping ;  and  the  same  method  of  enforcing  pro- 
per discipline  as  in  kneeling  at  proper  times,  keeping  silence,  &c., 
is  not  excluded  from  the  church  service  itself.  In  the  aisles  and 
passages  of  the  church,  zealous  beadles  of  the  converted  race  are 
stationed,  armed  with  sundry  weapons  of  potent  influence  in  effect- 
ing silence  and  attention,  and  which  are  not  sparingly  used  on  the 
refractory  or  inattentive.  These  consist  of  sticks  and  whips, 
long  goads,  &c.,  and  they  are  not  idle  in  the  hands  of  the  oflScials 
that  sway  them.  #  *  * 

"  The  unmarried  of  both  sexes,  as  well  adults  as  children,  are 
carefully  locked  up  at  night  in  separate  houses,  the  keys  being  left 
in  the  keeping  of  the  Fathers  ;  and  when  any  breach  of  this  rule  is 
detected,  the  culprits  of  both  sexes  are  severely  punished  by  whip- 
ping, —  the  men  in  public,  the  women  privately. 

"  It  is  obvious  from  all  this,  that  these  poor  people  are  in  fact 
slaves  under  another  name ;  and  it  is  no  wonder  that  La  Perouse 
found  the  resemblance  painfully  striking  between  their  condition 
and  that  of  the  negro  slaves  of  the  West  Indies.  Sometimes,  al- 
though rarely,  they  attempt  to  break  their  bonds  and  escape  into 
their  original  haunts.  But  this  is  of  rare  occurrence,  as,  indepen- 
dently of  the  difficulty  of  escaping,  they  are  so  simple  as  to  believe 


MONKS    IN    MEXICO ZAVALa's    STRICTURES.  139 

that  they  have  hardly  the  power  to  do  so  after  being  baptised,  re- 
garding the  ceremony  of  baptism  as  a  sort  of  spell  which  could  not 
be  broken.  Occasionally,  however,  they  overcome  all  imaginary 
and  real  obstacles  and  effect  their  escape.  In  such  cases,  the  run- 
away is  immediately  pursued,  and  as  it  is  always  known  to  which 
tribe  he  belongs,  and  as,  owing  to  the  enmity  subsisting  among  the 
tribes,  he  will  not  be  received  by  another,  he  is  almost  always 
found  and  surrendered  to  the  pursuers  by  his  pusillanimous  coun- 
trymen. When  brought  back  to  the  mission  he  is  always  first 
flogged  and  then  has  an  iron  clog  attached  to  his  legs,  which  has 
the  effect  of  preventing  his  running  away  and  marking  him  out,  in 
terrorem,  to  others." ' 

Additional  testimony  in  regard  to  the  evil  practices  of  the 
Mexican  padres  may  be  found  in  the  delightful  volumes  of  Madame 
Calderon  de  la  Barca,  entitled  "  Life  in  Mexico,  "  and  published 
in  1842.  "Alas!"  —  exclaims  this  sprightly  lady,  —  speaking 
of  the  wholesome  reforms  introduced  by  the  viceroy  Revilla-Gigedo 
among  the  Mexican  monks,  —  "alas!  could  his  excellency  have 
lived  to  these  our  degenerate  days,  and  beheld  certain  monks,  of  a 
certain  order,  drinking  pulque  and  otherwise  disporting  themselves; 
—  nay,  seen  one,  as  we  but  just  now  did  from  our  window,  stroll- 
ing along  the  street  by  lamp-light,  with  an  Indian  girl  tucked 
under  his  arm  !  " 

The  author  of  this  slight  but  significant  passage  —  an  American 
lady  of  the  highest  character  and  wife  of  the  first  minister  sent 
by  Spain  to  Mexico,  —  cannot  be  flippantly  contradicted  by  critics 
who  would  impute  to  her  either  prejudice  or  ignorance. 

Zavala,  in  his  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  Mexico  from  1808  to 
1830,  sketches  briefly  and  forcibly  some  of  the  earlier  features  of 
ecclesiastical  control  in  his  country.  As  he  was  a  native  and  a 
Catholic,  he  will  not  be  accused  of  injustice  to  a  church  which  he 
endeavored  to  fasten  on  the  nation  by  his  adherence  to  the  consti- 
tution which  made  the  Catholic  faith  the  exclusive  religion  of  the 
land.  "  They  created  missionaries,  "  says  he,  "who,  by  the  aid  of 
the  soldiery,  made  prodigious  proselytes.  *  *  ***** 
They  prepared  catechisms  and  small  formularies  in  the  language  of 
the  natives,  not  for  the  perusal  of  the  Indians,  who  could  not  read, 
but  in  order  to  repeat  them  in  their  pulpits  and  teach  them  by  rote. 
There  was  not  a  single  translation  of  the  sacred  volume  in  any 
idiom  of  the  country,  and  there  was  not  an  elementary  work  con- 
taining the  principles  of  their  faith.     But  how  could  such  works 

'  Forbes's  California,  p.  215. 


140  PAZO'S    STRICTURES    ON    SOUTH    AMERICAN    CLERGY. 

exist  for  the  Indians  when  their  conquerors  were  unable  to  read 
them  ?  What  I  desire  to  prove  by  this  is  that  religion  was  neither 
taught  the  natives  nor  were  they  persuaded  of  its  divine  origin  by 
proof  and  argument ;  the  whole  foundation  of  their  faith  was  the 
word  of  their  missionaries,  and  the  reason  of  their  belief  was  the 
bayonet  of  their  conquerors.  *****  rpj^g  dependence  of 
the  people  was  a  sort  of  slavery,  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 
ignorance  in  which  they  were  brought  up,  of  the  terror  with  which 
the  troops  and  authorities  inspired  them,  of  their  despotism  and 
pride,  and  more  than  all,  of  an  inquisition  sustained  both  by  the 
military  and  by  the  religious  superstitions  of  monks  and  clergymen 
whose  fanaticism  was  equal  to  their  ignorance.  ***** 
The  catechism  of  Padre  Ripalda,  which  contains  the  maxims  of  a 
blind  obedience  to  the  king  and  pope  was  the  ground  work  of  their 
religion ;  and  their  priests,  parents  and  masters  inculcated  these 
doctrines  incessantly.  "  ' 

Don  Vincente  Pazos,  in  his  celebrated  Letters  on  the  United 
Provinces  of  South  America,  does  not  even  stop  at  the  clergy,  in 
charging  a  large  share  of  the  miseries  of  his  countrymen  upon  the 
ecclesiastical  establishment,  but  confounds  the  creed  with  its  un 
worthy  ministers,  and  strikes  even  at  the  religion  itself: 

"  Among  the  evils  suffered  by  the  Indians  which  have  been  a 
source  of  unhappiness  to  them,  as  well  as  to  all  South  America,  is 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  which  was  introduced  among  them 
by  the  Spaniards.  This  religion,  in  countries  w^here  it  predomi- 
nates or  is  connected  with  the  government,  is  widely  different  from 
the  same  religion  as  it  appears  in  the  United  States  of  North  Ame- 
rica. Instead  of  being  employed  as  all  religions  ought  to  be,  in 
directing  the  morals,  purifying  the  hearts  and  restraining  the  vices 
of  the  people,  —  it  is  so  prostituted  in  Spanish  countries,  that  it 
has  become  nothing  but  a  mass  of  superstitious  ceremonies,  and 
the  instrument  of  avarice  and  oppression.  " 

The  error  of  the  patriotic  writer  is  so  evident  that  it  does  not 
need  exposure.  The  faith  and  the  friar  are  different  things.  Yet 
how  deep  must  be  the  corruption  of  a  class  whose  vices  force  an 
intelligent  man,  born  and  educated  in  the  bosom  of  the  church,  to 
denounce  his  religion  for  the  sake  of  its  worthless  teachers. 

We  have  dwelt  upon  this  subject  because  the  religion —  and  es- 
pecially the  protected  state  religion  of  a  country  —  is   always  of 
deep  interest  when  we  estimate  the  resources  and  character  of  a  na 
tion.     Priests  of  all  creeds  obtain  a  sacred  character  in  the  opinion 

'  Zavala,  Rev.  de  Mejico,  vol.  1,  pp.  14,  25. 


CHURCH    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    AND    IN    MEXICO.  141 

of  the  multitude  the  moment  their  vow  is  pronounced  at  the  altar. 
The  world  believes  that  they  part  with  human  nature  in  assuming 
the  gown,  and  become  in  reality,  the  divines  they  are  called  in  the 
fashionable  nomenclature  of  the  age. 

The  priest,  whether  Protestant,  Catholic,  Mahomedan  or  Chi- 
nese, is  ever  an  important,  and  often  an  omnipotent,  member  of 
the  social  world.  And  it  behooves  society  in  the  nineteenth  century 
to  cherish  Christianity  instead  of  Flamens  and  Soothsayers. 

It  has  been  our  principle  through  life  to  cultivate  a  genial  feeling 
of  toleration  towards  all  the  various  sects  into  which  the  great 
Christian  church  is  divided.  We  have  resisted  bigotry  in  all  its 
shapes,  and  in  all  its  manifestations,  from  whatever  source.  Trust- 
ing in  the  essential  faith  and  discarding  the  external  form,  we  have 
regarded  all  men  who  knelt  at  the  altar  which  was  cemented  with 
the  blood  of  the  Nazarine,  as  a  great  brotherhood  devoted  to  the 
religious  regeneration  and  consequent  civilization  of  the  world.  In 
writing,  therefore,  of  the  Catholic  church  in  Mexico  we  have  been 
pained  to  speak  disparagingly  of  a  part  of  the  priesthood,  whose 
members,  in  our  own  country,  we  had  early  in  life  learned  to  reve- 
rence for  their  virtuous  piety,  and  admire  for  their  profound  learn- 
ing. We  know  that  the  great  theoretical  dogma  of  that  powerful 
church  is  its  unity,  and  that  its  tenets,  principles  and  practices  are 
universally  the  same  throughout  the  world.  For  opinions  given 
and  examples  cited,  in  another  work,  we  have  been  severely  re- 
buked, by  one  of  the  most  learned  theologians  in  the  Roman  church, 
who  argues  our  wilful  error,  upon  this  assumption  of  theoretical 
identity.  But  we  have  the  satisfaction  to  know,  not  only  from 
Mexicans  themselves,  but  from  American  Catholics  who  visited  the 
country  since  that  criticism  was  issued,  that  our  descriptions,  in  no 
instance,  surpassed  the  reality,  and  that  if  the  tenets,  be  in  fact,  the 
same  as  those  entertained  by  the  church  at  Rome  and  in  the  United 
States,  the  principles,  and,  especially,  the  practices  of  many  of  its 
ministers,  vary  extraordinarily  from  the  principles  and  practices  of 
its  ministers  here.  In  another  portion  of  this  work  we  may,  pro- 
bably, notice  some  of  those  practices  more  fully.  ^ 

The  facts  we  have  been  obliged  to  state  in  regard  to  some  of  the 
materiel  of  the  present  Mexican  ecclesiastical  establishment  do  not 
touch  the  dogmas  of  the  Catholic  church  though  they  certainly  in- 
dicate so  great  a  degree  of  laxity  in  the  administration  of  a  power- 

'  See  Mayer's  Mexico  as  it  Was  and  as  it  Is,  1844  ;  and  the  review  of  it  by  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Verot,  in  the  United  States  Catholic  Magazine  for  March,  1844:  See  also 
the  reply  entitled  Romanism  in  Mexico,  published  in  Baltimore  in  the  same  year. 


142  CONSTITUTIONAL    PROTECTION    OF    CATHOLICISM. 

ful  moral,  civil  and  religious  engine  endowed  with  immense  re- 
sources, that  they  should  attract  the  reforming  notice  of  those  pure 
branches  of  the  Roman  fraternity  whose  proximity  will  best  afford 
them  the  occasion  to  counsel  their  brethren  in  an  age  of  progress 
and  competition  not  only  in  trade  but  in  religion.  Texas  has  al- 
ready improved  under  the  auspices  of  a  new  ecclesiastical  adminis- 
tration since  her  union  with  the  North  American  states  and  her 
religious  alliance  with  their  Roman  Catholic  Archbishopric.  Nor  is 
the  importance  of  these  ameliorations  less  demanded  at  the  hands 
of  republican  ecclesiastics  when  we  recollect  that  the  federal  con- 
stitution adopted  in  1847,  now  the  fundamental  law  of  the  land, 
declares  in  its  first  title,  that  the  "  religion  of  the  Mexican  nation 
is,  and  will  be  perpetually,  the  Catholic,  apostolic,  Roman.  The 
nation  protects  it  by  wise  and  just  laws,  and  jyrohibits  the  exercise 
of  any  other  !^-  Men,  in  Mexico,  must  not  only  not  pray  as  they 
please,  but,  constitutionally,  they  must  not  believe  as  they  please.  A 
priesthood  which  is  thus  indissolubly  and  exclusively  welded  to  the 
state  in  a  republic,  should  be,  indeed,  peculiarly  sacred  and  pure. 
Sole,  despotic  ecclesiastical  power,  based  upon  numerical  strength, 
—  intolerant  of  all  other  modes  of  worship  or  modifications  of 
Christianity,  —  is  an  anomaly  in  the  nineteenth  century,  nor  is  it 
likely  that  the  civil  liberty  of  a  nation  can  ever  become  secure  or 
worthy,  until  religious  liberty  is,  at  least,  permitted  if  not  enjoined 
by  its  paramount  law.  These  two  elements  of  human  right  and 
progress  have  ever  moved  hand  in  hand.  It  is  a  mockery  to  sepa- 
rate them  and  tell  the  people  they  are  free.  The  indefeisible  rights 
of  reason  and  judgment  are  sapped  and  stifled.  When  conscience, 
even,  must  struggle  with  legal  shackles  in  its  intercourse  with  God, 
what  must  be  the  conflict  of  the  soul  in  its  intercourse  with  man ! 

"  We  speak  not  of  mens'  creeds  —  they  rest  between 
Man  and  his  Maker ;  "  — 

but  we  have  confined  our  observations  in  this  work,  exclusively  to 
those  painful  exhibitions  which  cannot  fail  to  strike  a  stranger  as 
disadvantageous  both  to  intellectual  progress  and  the  pure  and  spi- 
ritual adoration  of  God.  The  mixture  of  antique  barbaric  show 
and  Indian  rites,  may  have  served  to  attract  the  native  population 
at  the  first  settlement  of  the  country;  but  their  continuance  is  in 
keeping  neither  with  the  spirit  of  the  age  nor  the  necessities  of  a 
republic.  While  the  priesthood  has  contrived,  in  the  course  of 
centuries,  to  attract  the  wealth  of  multitudes,  and  to  make  itself,  in 
various  ways,  the  richest  proprietor  of  the  nation,  the  people  have 
been  impoverished  and  continued  ignorant.     Not  content  with  the 


DUTY    OF    THE     CHURCH BULLS  PAPER    MONEY.  143 

natural  influence  possessed  by  a  church  whose  members  are  spread 
all  over  the  republic,  the  hierarchy  of  Mexico,  has  exacted  a  con- 
stitutional recognition  not  only  of  its  permanence,  but  of  its  right 
to  exclude  all  other  faiths,  and  all  other  religious  reunions  for  wor- 
ship. It  appears,  therefore,  just  that  in  such  a  republic  it  was  the 
duty  of  the  Roman  church  voluntarily  to  unfetter  its  wealth,  to  re- 
form its  priesthood,  to  sweep  into  the  public  coffers  the  useless 
jewels  that  adorn  the  altars  and  statues,  yet  do  not  glorify  the  Al- 
mighty; and  to  imitate  the  virtues,  resolution  and  self-denial  of  its 
ministers  in  our  country,  who,  while  blending  themselves  in  politics 
and  public  spirit  most  effectually  with  the  masses,  have  devoted 
their  lives  to  the  education  of  people  of  all  creeds  and  classes  for 
support  and  independence. 

"Far  from  the  goods  of  the  church  being  exempted  because  they 
are  consecrated  to  God, "  says  Vattel  in  his  immortal  work,  "  it  is 
for  that  very  reason  that  they  should  be  the  first  taken  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  state.  There  is  nothing  more  agreeable  to  the  common 
Father  of  men  than  to  preserve  a  nation  from  destruction.  As  God 
has  no  need  of  property,  the  consecration  of  goods  to  him,  is  their 
devotion  to  such  purposes  as  are  pleasant  to  him.  Besides,  —  the 
property  of  the  church,  by  the  confession  of  the  clergy  themselves, 
is  chiefly  destined  for  the  poor ;  and  when  the  state  is  in  want,  it 
is,  doubtless,  the  first  pauper,  and  the  worthiest  of  succor.  "  * 

'  We  trust  that  it  will  not  be  regarded  as  levity  if  we  relate  an  anecdote  which 
shows  that  the  church  lias  contributed  to  the  money  if  not  to  the  wealth  of  the 
country,  in  years  past,  in  a  most  unexampled  manner.  It  will  be  recollected  that 
in  the  historical  part  of  this  work  there  is  an  account  of  the  mode  in  which  a  large 
revenue  was  derived  by  the  government  from  the  sale  of  Bulls  issued  by  the  church 
permitting  the  people  a  variety  of  indulgences  and  acts  which,  without  the  posses- 
sion of  such  a  document,  were  not  allowed  by  the  spiritual  laws  of  Rome,  or  the 
temporal  laws  of  Spain.  Immense  packages  of  these  Bulls  were  found  in  the 
treasury  after  the  revolution,  and,  when  it  became  necessary  for  the  government  to 
issue  a  temporary  paper  money,  the  financiers  of  the  nation  thought  it  a  wise  stroke 
to  make  these  Bulls  at  once  a  license  of  indulgence  to  the  holder,  and  a  security 
against  counterfeiters.  Accordingly  they  printed  the  government  notes  on  the  blank 
back  of  the  Bulls,  which  had  been  sent  from  Spain  to  supply  her  revenue.  One  of 
these  treasury  notes,  now  before  us,  measures  twelve  inches  in  length  by  nine  in 
breadth,  and  promises  to  pay  two  dollars.  The  Bull  upon  which  it  is  printed  is  an 
indulgence,  valued  at  "  two  coined  silver  reals,  "  or,  twenty-five  cents,  allowing  the 
posseiisor  to  eat  "  wholesome  meal,  eggs  and  milk,  "  during  lent  and  on  fast  days. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
CONSTITUTIONS    AND    LAWS. 


VARIOUS     CHANGES    OF    THE    MEXICAN    CONSTITUTION. PRESENT 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  NATIONAL  AND  STATE  GOVERNMENTS.  — 
CONSTITUTION  OF  1847. LEGISLATIVE  AND  JUDICIARY NA- 
TIONAL AND  STATE. JUDICIARY ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUS- 
TICE  CIVIL   AND    CRIMINAL    PROCESS MAL-ADMINISTRATION 

OF      JUSTICE. PRISONS CRIME ACCORDADA. CONDITION 

OF  PRISONS. STATISTICS  OF  CRIME  IN  THE  CAPITAL GAR- 
ROTTE.  MEXICAN    OPINIONS. 

Since  the  downfall  of  Iturbide  the  body  politic  of  Mexico  has 
passed  through  many  stages  of  revolutionary  and  factious  disease. 
Four  constitutions  have  been  formed  and  adopted  by  the  people  or 
their  temporary  rulers  independently  of  the  Bases  de  Tacubaya, 
under  which  Santa  Anna  ruled  despotically  until  the  month  of 
June,  1843.  These  are  the  Federal  Constitution  of  1824;  the 
Bases  y  Leyes  Constitutionales,  or,  Central  Constitution  of  1836 ; 
the  Bases  Organicas  de  la  Republica  Mejicana  of  1843,  and  the 
restored  Federal  Constitution,  with  amendments  by  an  acta  de  re- 
formas^  in  1847.  Five  great  organic  changes,  in  twenty-six  years, 
have  thus  continually  swayed  the  people  between  Federation  and 
Centralism ;  and  we  may  hope  that,  after  all  these  vital  alterations, 
besides  all  the  minor  military  pronunciamientos  or  gritos,  which,  in 
the  intervals  have  vexed  the  public  tranquillity,  the  countiy  has, 
at  length  settled  down  firmly  upon  the  reliable  basis  of  a  great 
but  balanced  confederacy. 

The  Constitution  of  1847  creates  a  Federal  Republic  ;  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  intolerant  articles  in  regard  to  religion  upon 
which  we  have  commented  in  the  preceding  chapter,  it  is  a  docu- 
ment worthy  of  freemen  who  desire  to  avoid  consolidation  and  are 
anxious  to  preserve  the  distinct,  responsible  activity  of  their  states. 
This  instrument,  after  indicating  the  subdivision  of  the  whole  terri- 
tory into  the  states  heretofore  enumerated  in  Chapter  1st,  deposes 
the  national  legislative  power  in  a  Congress  formed  of  a  house  of 
representatives  and  a  senate,  the  representatives  being  chosen 
every  two  years  by  the  citizens  of  the  states,  in  the  ratio  of  one  for 
every  fifty  thousand  souls  or  for  any  fraction  beyond  twenty-five 


CONSTITUTION   OF    1847.  145 

thousand,  while  the  senate  is  composed  of  two  members  from  each 
state,  elected  by  the  legislatures,  one-third  of  that  body  beino-  re- 
newable every  two  years.  There  are  now  one  hundred  and  forty 
deputies,  each  of  whom  receives  a  salary  of  three  thousand  dollars  • 
and  sixty-three  senators,  whose  yearly  pay  is  three  thousand  five 
hundred  each. 

The  executive  power  resides  in  a  president,  who  is  eligible  every 
four  years,  and  cannot  be  re-elected  except  after  an  interval  of  four 
years.  There  is  no  vice  president ;  and.  in  case  of  the  death  or 
perpetual  incompetency  of  the  president,  congress,  or  in  its  recess 
the  council  of  government,  shall  call  upon  the  state  legislatures  to 
fill  his  place  by  election.  The  ordinary  and  regular  election  of  the 
chief  magistrate,  of  deputies,  senators  and  ministers  of  the  supreme 
court  of  justice,  is  to  be  regulated  by  general  laws,  and  may  be 
either  by  the  people  directly  or  by  electoral  colleges ;  but  in  these 
indirect  elections  no  one  can  be  named,  either  as  a  primary  or 
secondary  elector,  who  holds  a  political  office  or  exercises  civil, 
ecclesiastical,  or  military  jurisdiction  in  the  district  he  represents. 
The  salary  of  the  president  is  thirty-six  thousand  dollars  a  year. 
During  the  recess  of  the  general  congress  a  council  of  government 
is  to  be  constantly  in  existence,  composed  of  one  half  of  the  senate, 
one  member  being  retained  from  each  state.  The  duties  of  this 
council  are  confined  chiefly  to  a  salutary  vigilance  over  the  consti- 
tution and  laws,  and  to  the  convocation  of  extraordinary  sessions 
of  the  national  legislature,  either  in  conjunction  with  the  president 
or  by  its  sole  act.  The  cabinet  consists  of  a  minister  of  foreign 
and  domestic  affairs  ;  a  minister  of  justice ;  a  minister  of  finance ; 
a  minister  of  war  and  marine,  each  of  whom  receive  an  annual 
salary  of  six  thousand  dollars. 

Each  state  government  is  independent^  within  its  local  jurisdic- 
tion, and,  like  the  federal  government  has,  executive,  legislative 
and  judicial  powers.  The  law  making  power  of  each  of  these  gov- 
ernments resides  in  a  legislature  composed  of  the  number  of  mem- 
bers which  may  be  determined  by  its  separate  constituency,  all  of 
whom  shall  be  elected  by  the  people  and  removable  at  the  time 
and  in  the  manner  they  may  think  proper  to  decree.  The  persons 
to  whom  the  sovereign  states  confide  their  executive  power,  can 
only  exercise  it  for  a  time  fixed  by  each  respective  state  constitu- 
tion. The  power  and  jurisdiction  of  the  national  judiciary  are 
amply  defined  so  as  to  avoid  conflict.  The  state  judicial  power  is 
to  be  exercised  by  the  tribunals  created  or  appointed  by  the, 
state  constitutions,  and  all  civil  or  criminal  causes  recognized  by 
s 


146         LEGISLATIVE  AND  JUDICIARY NATIONAL  AND  STATE. 

those  courts  shall  be  conducted  in  them  to  a  final  hearing  and  to 
the  execution  of  the  sentence.  Every  male  person  either  born 
in  the  republic  or  naturalized,  who  attains  the  age  of  twenty  years, 
possesses  the  means  of  honest  livelihood,  and  has  not  been  sen- 
tenced by  legal  process  for  any  infamous  crime,  is  declared  to  be  a 
citizen  of  Mexico,  and  enjoys  the  right  to  vote,  to  petition,  to  meet 
others  in  the  discussion  of  public  affairs  and  to  belong  to  the 
national  guard.  The  exercise  of  these  rights  of  citizenship  may 
however  be  suspended  in  consequence  of  confirmed  intemperance, 
professional  gambling,  a  vagabond  life,  the  assumption  of  religious 
orders,  by  legal  interdict,  in  virtue  of  crimes  which  cause  loss  of 
citizenship,  and  by  inexcusable  refusal  to  serve  in  public  employ- 
ment when  appointed  by  the  people. 

Administration  of  Justice. 

The  federal  constitution  of  1824,  introduced  into  Mexico,  as  we 
have  seen,  two  general  orders  of  tribunals ;  those  of  a  federal  or 
national  character,  and  those  of  the  states.  The  power  of  these 
judiciaries  was  deposited  in  a  supreme  court,  and  in  circuit  and 
district  courts ;  and  causes  were  taken  from  one  to  the  other,  by 
appeals,  or  in  other  words,  passed  by  grades  from  the  lowest  to 
the  highest,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  transactions  they  in- 
volved. The  jurisdiction  of  these  courts  was  of  course  very  exten- 
sive ;  yet  it  was  not  paramount  or  universal  over  all  classes  of 
Mexican  society,  inasmuch  as  large  numbers  of  Mexicans  were 
exempted  by  fiieros  or  special  privileged  jurisdictions,  from  the 
control  of  the  constitutional  courts.  T\\efueros  were  chiefly  those 
of  the  military  and  ecclesiastics.  There  was  a  common  military 
fuero  in  civil  and  criminal  matters,  which  authorized  the  parties  to 
have  their  causes  tried  before  the  commanding  generals,  and,  on 
appeals,  before  the  supreme  tribunal  of  War  and  Marine,  whilst 
there  was  another  right  of  trial,  or  jurisdiction  for  military  misde- 
meanors, before  the  council  of  war  of  general  officers.  There 
were,  besides  these,  three  special  jTweros  of  war;  —  one  of  artillery, 
one  of  engineers,  and  another  of  the  active  militia.  The  ecclesias- 
tical/kero,  gave  an  appeal  from  the  bishop  to  the  metropolitan,  oi 
from  the  archbishop  to  the  nearest  prelate ;  —  if  the  metroplitan 
commenced  a  cause,  an  appeal  lay  to  the  bishop  who  was  his  near- 
est neighbor ;  and,  on  a  third  trial,  to  another  neighboring  episco- 
pate. Notwithstanding  these  military  and  ecclesiastical  fueros 
were  permitted  to  exist  by  special  favoritism  after  the  republic  was 
formed,  the  Mexicans  suppressed,  after  1824,  the  fueros  of  the 


JUDICIARY ADMINISTRATION    OF    JUSTICE.  147 

consulados  and  of  the  mineria,  or  the  mercantile  and  mining  tribu- 
nals, both  of  which  were  sanctioned  by  experience  or  convenience, 
and  whose  foundations  had  been  laid  in  the  best  principles  of 
jurisprudence.  To  compensate,  however,  for  the  destruction  of 
such  useful  institutions,  it  was  determined  that,  in  the  federal 
districts  and  territories,  suits  growing  out  of  mercantile  transac- 
tions should  be  decided,  in  the  first  instance,  by  the  "Alcaldes" 
or  judges  de  letras,  with  whom  were  associated  two  colleagues  pro- 
posed by  the  parties,  and  from  whom  an  appeal  might  be  taken  to 
the  supreme  court.  No  special  tribunal  was  created  for  the  min- 
ing interests.  In  the  federal  districts  and  territories  a  primary  tri- 
bunal was  constituted  for  the  trial  of  culprits,  before  an  Alcalde 
and  two  Regidores  ;  from  whom  an  appeal  lay  to  another  Alcalde 
or  Regidor  and  two  associates,  one  of  whom  was  named  by  the 
Syndic,  and  the  other  by  the  criminal.  This  correctional  police, 
which  has  since  been  somewhat  modified,  disposed  summarily  of 
the  greater  part  of  malefactors  in  Mexico,  and  w^as  empowered  to 
sentence  to  the  extent  of  six  years  imprisonment.  The  central 
constitution  of  1836  modified  this  judicial  system,  and  constituted 
judges  de  partido, — Jueces  Departamentales,  and  a  supreme  court. 
The  federal  jurisdiction  was  confined  to  admirality  cases,  fiscal 
transactions,  and  causes  w^hich  concerned  the  public  functionaries, 
while  the  military  and  ecclesiastical  tribunals  were   left  untouched. 

Santa  Anna  during  his  last  administration  suppressed  the  district 
and  circuit  judiciary,  and  extended  the  jurisdiction  of  the  common 
tribunals.  But  he  restored  the  mercantile  and  mining '^Jlteros  " 
which  were  loudly  demanded  by  public  opinion.  One  of  the  few 
really  good  and  useful  provisions  of  the  Spanish  constitution  has 
always  been  preserved  in  all  the  changes  of  Mexican  legislation. 
This  is  the  judgment  of  conciliation^  by  which  litigant  parties  were 
prohibited  from  originating  an  action  until  they  procured  a  certifi- 
cate from  an  Alcalde,  —  who  was  not  a  lawyer,  — that  a  judgment 
by  arbitration  or  conciliation  had  failed  before  him  on  trial.  This 
is  an  admirable  device  and  terminates  multitudes  of  law  suits  in 
Mexico  when  men  fear  to  encounter  the  costs  and  procrastination 
of  the  courts.  It  might  be  successfully  grafted  on  our  own  system 
of  tribunals,  where  it  would  doubtless  benefit  the  clients  though  it 
might  impair  the  professional  revenue  of  the  counsellors. 

By  the  readoption  of  the  federal  constitution  of  1824,  in  the  year 
1847,  the  judicial  system  was  brought  back  from  the  changes  of 
1836  and  1843  to  its  former  condition.  The  laws  of  Mexico, 
founded  upon  the  old  Spanish  colonial  legislation,  and  improved, 


148  CIVIL    AND    CRIMINAL    PROCESS. 

in  some  measure,  by  the  modification  of  state  and  national  legisla- 
tures under  the  republic,  constitute  a  vast  and  chaotic  mass  of 
principles,  commentaries  and  decisions,  which  require  a  life  time 
of  studious  toil  to  master  and  expound.  The  mixture  of  constitu- 
tional tribunals  and  specially  privileged  jurisdictions,  under  the 
system  oi  fueros,  —  created  a  complication  of  judicial  functions, 
which  greatly  narrowed  the  chances  of  a  pure  administration  of  law. 
The  Mexican  advocates,  among  whom  many  are  distinguished 
for  their  learning  and  studious  habits,  are  not,  when  considered  as 
a  professional  body,  comparable,  either  in  informati*on  or  ability,  to 
their  British,  French,  German  or  American  brethren.  The  cum- 
brous formalities  of  Spanish  law  form  a  prolific  hot-bed  of  special 
pleading,  chicanery,  and  delay.  A  Mexican  law  suit  is  a  proverb 
of  procrastination.  There  are  cases  in  Mexico  in  which  the  first 
paper  was  filed  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  suitor  is  not 
only  impeded  by  every  device  that  cunning  and  exaction  can  throw 
in  his  way,  but  there  is  cause  to  believe  that  the  path  of  justice  is 
sometimes  impeded  by  the  barrier  of  a  bribe.  If  a  Mexican  lawyer 
is  unable  to  force  his  cause  to  a  final  verdict,  he  is  at  least  always 
prepared  to  assign  plausible  reasons  for  the  tedious  delay  with 
which  it  halts  and  lingers  in  the  forums.  Nor  is  the  value  of  legal 
costs  unknown  in  Mexico,  either  by  judges,  notaries,  or  clerks. 
In  proportion  as  the  litigants  are  wealthy,  or  as  it  is  necessary  that 
their  cause  sho  Id  be  speedily  decided,  so  are  the  greedy  ofl[icials 
slow  in  preparing  it  for  a  final  hearing  and  decree.  The  maxim  in 
Mexico  is  —  "  mas  vale  inia  mala  composicion  que  un  buen  pleito,  " 
—  a  bad  compromise  is  better  than  a  good  law  suit.  "There  are 
men,  "  —  said  a  member  of  the  Mexican  cabinet  to  congress,  in 
1830,  — "  who  exercise  the  right  of  life  and  death  over  their 
equals,  whom  the  arm  of  justice  does  not  venture  to  reach  ;  and, 
thus,  as  the  bonds  of  society  are  effectually  dissolved,  individuals 
owe  security,  rather  to  their  personal  power,  than  to  the  protection 
they  have  a  right  to  expect  from  the  laws.  "  There  are  many 
criminals  throughout  the  republic  who  have  long  offended  with  im- 
punity while  every  species  of  chicanery  has  been  taken  advantage 
of  to  secure  their  life  and  liberty.  Witnesses  are  sometimes  intimi- 
dated, false  oaths  sworn,  and  terrible  menaces  whispered  in  the 
ears  of  the  timid ;  nor  are  these  base  threats  always  left  unexecuted 
if  the  victim  is  finally  condemned  and  punished. 

In  the  space  of  six  months,  during  the  end  of  1841  and  begin- 
ning of  1842,  several  horrible  assassinations  were  perpetrated  in 


MALADMINISTRATION    OF    JUSTICE.  149 

Mexico.  An  old  Spanish  porter  was  slain  and  cruelly  mutilated  in 
his  dwelling,  in  the  capital.  So  scandalous  a  deed  excited  univer- 
sal indignation.  The  judicial  authorities  of  the  capital  ordered 
rigorous  proceedings  against  the  culprit,  but,  after  the  case  had 
been  tried,  and  the  murderer  condemned  to  lose  his  life,  he  was 
pardoned  in  consequence  of  a  threat  that  he  would  make  important 
or  disagreeable  revelations  if  the  sentence  were  executed.  Another 
Spaniard,  —  a  planter  of  standing  in  his  district,  —  was  murdered 
by  the  servants  of  a  neighboring  haciendado,  with  whom  he  had  a 
dispute  in  regard  to  water-rights.  The  cause  was  tried,  and  the 
instigator  and  his  tools  were  imprisoned.  Yet  the  arm  of  justice 
was  withheld  by  intrigue  and  corruption.  Another  Spanish  plan- 
ter, in  the  south,  —  a  physician  by  profession,  and  a  man  incapable 
of  injuring  any  one,  —  was  foully  killed  by  a  band  of  Indians,  nine 
of  whom  were  shot  for  the  crime.  These  miserable  wretches  had 
been  but  the  instruments  of  higher  criminals  who  were  well  known 
to  the  public,  nevertheless  they  were  too  powerful  to  be  made  re- 
sponsible for  their  shameful  crime.  At  Tacubaya,  in  1842,  an 
English  gentleman  and  his  wife,  whilst  indulging  in  an  evening 
walk  were  assassinated  and  brutally  mutilated.  But  justice  was 
for  a  long  time  foiled  in  its  retributive  efforts.  Nor  is  it  likely  that 
the  culprits  would  ever  have  expiated  their  guilt  on  the  scaffold 
had  not  the  foreign  population  loudly  demanded,  and  liberally  paid 
for  their  conviction.  In  1839,  the  Mexican  judges  gave  a  striking 
example  of  firmness  in  the  execution  of  a  capital  sentence,  decreed 
in  a  case  which  lasted  four  years  against  a  colonel  of  the  army  and 
his  companions.  It  was  proved  that  this  scoundrel  whilst  residing 
in  the  national  palace  as  one  of  the  aid-de-camps  of  the  president, 
had  been  tiie  chief  of  a  band  of  robbers  who  committed  their  offences 
not  only  on  the  highway,  but  in  the  metropolis  itself.  The  honor- 
able result  in  this  case  was  chiefly  owing  to  the  firmness  of  the 
attorney  general,  who  resisted  the  threats  and  the  bribes  of  the 
criminal's  powerful  friends.  Yet  he,  probably,  paid  for  his  firm- 
ness with  his  life,  for  he  died  shortly  after  the  execution,  and  there 
is  reason  to  believe,  that  he  perished  by  foul  means.  During  the 
administration  of  Santa  Anna  in  1842  and  1843,  the  most  energetic 
efforts  were  made  to  free  the  country  and  the  public  roads,  from  the 
hordes  of  robbers  that  thronged  them.  The  highway  from  Vera 
Cruz  to  Mexico  was  filled  with  thieves,  whose  favorite  haunts  were 
in  the  neighborhoods  of  Perote  and  Puebla,  within  the  hearing  of 
whose  sentinels  they  almost  daily  exercised  their  vocation  upon 
travellers   in  the   diligence.     Santa  Anna  placed  large  bodies  of 


150  PRISONS CRIME ACCORDADA. 

cavalry  on  the  route  as  soon  as  he  came  to  power,  and  numerous 
arrests  were  made  which  were  followed  by  the  prompt  conviction 
and  execution  of  the  bandits.  No  mercy  was  shown.  The  rob- 
bers were  garroted,  in  pairs,  in  the  towns  along  the  road  and  in  the 
capital;  and  thousands  turned  out  morning  after  morning  to  witness 
the  tragic  end  of  these  merciless  wretches.  For  a  short  time  the 
road  was  free ;  but,  in  a  few  months,  new  bands  replaced  the  exe- 
cuted robbers,  and,  since  the  war  with  the  United  States,  the  main 
highway  of  Mexico  has  become  as  insecure  as  of  old. 

Prisons  —  Crime. 

The  prisons  of  the  city  of  Mexico  are  in  a  wretched  condition, 
and,  although  it  has  often  been  proposed  to  introduce  some  of  the 
modern  penitentiary  systems  of  Europe  and  the  United  States,  we 
are  not  aware  that  any  thing  has  been  done  to  effect  this  desirable 
end.  The  Accordada  is  the  common  prison  of  Mexico.  In  front 
of  one  of  its  wings,  at  a  low  window  protected  by  stout  iron  bars, 
are  laid,  every  morning,  the  dead  bodies  that  have  been  found 
throughout  the  city  during  the  night.  Every  day  these  frightful 
evidences  of  murder  or  violent  death  are  exposed  to  the  gaze  of 
citizens  as  they  pass  onward  towards  the  w^estern  limits  of  the  city. 
Sometimes  five  dead  bodies  have  been  seen  at  one  time  in  this 
Morgue  of  Mexico;  —  and,  on  days  succeeding  festivals,  the  num- 
ber is  sometimes  largely  augmented.  These  unfortunate  wretches 
are  the  victims  of  quarrels,  or  sudden  fights  ;  —  and  the  front  of  the 
deadly  window  is  commonly  crowded  with  women  and  children  — 
the  relatives  of  the  victims  who  come  thither  to  seek  after  or  to 
gaze  their  last  on  friend,  father  or  husband. 

Loathsome  as  is  this  exhibition  on  the  exterior  of  the  Accordada, 
the  interior  of  this  edifice  is  scarcely  less  frightful.  Like  all  large 
Spanish  edifices  it  is  quadrangular.  A  strong  military  guard 
watches  the  gate,  and  a  gloomy  stairway  leads  to  the  second  story, 
whose  entrance  is  guarded  by  a  massive  portal.  ,.  Inside  of  this,  a 
lofty  room  is  filled  with  the  prison  officers  and  a  crowd  of  subalterns 
engaged  in  WTiting,  talking,  smoking  and  walking,  whilst  the  clank 
of  chains,  the  shouts  of  prisoners  and  the  constant  din  of  a  disor- 
derly establishment,  add  to  the  disgusting  sounds  and  demeanor 
within. 

Passing  through  several  iron  and  wood  barred  gates,  you  enter 
a  lofty  corridor,  running  around  a  quadrangular  court-yard,  in  the 
centre  of  which,  below,  is  a  fountain  of  troubled  water.  The 
whole  of  this  area  is  filled  with  human  beings,  —  the  great  congress 


CONDITION    OF    PRISONS.  151 

of  Mexican  crime,  —  mixed  and  mingling,  like  a  hill  of  busy  ants 
swarming  from  their  sandy  caverns.  Some  are  stripped  and  bath- 
ing in  the  fountain;  —  some  are  fighting  in  a  corner;  —  some 
making  baskets  in  another.  In  one  place  a  crowd  is  gathered 
around  a  witty  story-teller,  relating  the  adventures  of  his  rascally 
life.  In  another,  a  group  is  engaged  in  weaving  with  a  hand- 
loom.  Robbers,  murderers,  thieves,  ravishers,  felons  of  every 
description,  and  vagabonds  of  every  grade  or  aspect,  are  crammed 
within  this  dismal  court-yard  ;  and,  almost  free  from  discipline  or 
moral  restraint,  form,  perhaps,  the  most  splendid  school  of  misde- 
meanor and  villany  on  the  American  continent. 

Below,  —  within  the  corridor  of  the  second  story,  —  another 
class  of  criminals  is  kept;  and  yet,  even  here,  men  under  sentence 
of  death,  are  pointed  out  who  are  still  permitted  to  go  about  with- 
out restraint. 

In  one  corner  of  the  quadrangle  is  the  chapel,  where  convicts 
for  capital  offences  are  condemned  to  solitude  and  penance,  during 
the  three  last  days  of  their  miserable  life  ;  and,  at  a  certain  hour,  it 
is  usual  for  all  the  prisoners  to  gather  in  front  of  the  door  and 
chant  a  hymn  for  the  victim  of  the  laws.  It  is  a  solemn  service  of 
crime  for  crime. 

The  women  are  not  generally  seen  in  the  Accordada,  but  their 
condition  is  but  little  better  than  that  of  the  males.  About  one 
hundred  of  the  men,  chained  in  pairs  like  galley  slaves,  are  driven 
daily,  under  a  strong  guard,  into  the  streets  as  scavengers  ;  and  it 
seems  to  be  the  chief  idea  of  the  utility  of  prisons  in  Mexico,  to 
support  this  class  of  coerced  laborers. 

There  can  be  no  apology,  at  this  period  of  general  enlightenment 
in  the  world,  for  such  disgraceful  exhibitions  of  Ihe  congregated 
vice  of  a  country  or  capital.  Punishments,  or  rather  incarceration 
or  labor  on  the  streets,  is  in  reality  no  Sacrifice,  because  public  ex- 
hibition deadens  the  felon's  shame,  inasmuch  as  such  inflictions 
cannot  become  punishments,  under  any  circumstances  of  a  lepero^s 
life.  Indeed,  what  object  in  existence  can  the  Mexican  lepero  pro- 
pose to  himself?  His  day  is  one  of  precarious  labor  and  income ; 
—  he  thieves  ; — he  has  no  regular  home,  or  if  he  has,  it  is  some 
miserable  hovel  of  earth  and  mud,  where  his  wife  and  children 
crawl  about  with  scarce  the  instinct  of  beavers.  His  food  and 
clothing  are  scant  and  miserable.  He  is  without  education  or 
prospect  of  social  improvement.  He  belongs  to  a  class  that  does 
not  rise,  for  his  class  is  ostracised  by  hereditary  public  opinion. 
He  dulls  his  sense  of  present  misery  by  intoxicating  drinks.     His 


152 


STATISTICS    OF    CRIME    IN    THE    CAPITAL. 


quick  temper  stimulates  him  to  quarrel.  His  sleep,  after  a 
debauch,  is  unrefreshing,  and  he  only  wakes  to  encounter  another 
day  of  uncertainty  and  wickedness.  What,  then,  is  the  value  of 
life  to  him,  or  one  like  him  ?  Why  toil  ?  Why  not  steal  ?  What 
shame  has  he  ?  Is  the  prison,  with  certainty  offood,  a  greater 
punishment  than  the  free  air  with  uncertainty  !■  On  the  contrary, 
he  regards  it  as  a  lighter  punishment,  whilst  he  is  altogether  insen- 
sible to  its  moral  degradation. 

Mexico  will  thus  continue  to  be  infested  with  felons,  as  long 
as  its  prison  is  a  house  of  refuge,  and  a  comparatively  happy  home 
to  so  large  a  portion  of  its  outcasts.  ' 

Statistics  of  Crime  in  the    Capital,    1826  —  1836 — 1842. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  conditon  of  the  public  prisons 
of  Mexico  in  1826. 

Inmates  on  the  31st  Dec,  1825,           .  .         .         .  553 

For  Homicides  and  their  accomplices,  .        151^ 
Entered       "    Robbery,       "        "             "             .         1,090 

in  1826. -<     "    Rioting  and  bearing  arms,           .  .     2,011  \-     4,750 

"    Incontinence  (incontinencia,)         .  543 

"    Various  crimes,          .         .         •  .        955 


Total  number  of  persons, 5,303 

Of  these  there  were 

Released, 4,155 

Sentenced  to  death  by  garrotte,      ...  7 

"         to  prison  for  terms,  ....  67 
''         to  public  works,    .                 ...    159  )>    4,628 

"          to  house  of  correction,       ...  3 

"          to  service  of  the  prison,         .         .  .   229 

"          chained  at  various  places,         .         .  8^ 

Remaining  on  the  31st  December,  1826,         .  .                   675 

Military  Trials  and  Judgments  in  1826. 

Entered  prison,  to  be  judged  by  military  tribunals,  .           462 

Sentenced  to  punishment,         .         .         .         .  8' 

"  to  prison,         .     .         .         .         .         .48 

"          to  military  service,           ...  5 

"          to  public  works,            ....  55 

"          to  house  of  correction,     ...  6  >>       362 

Liberated, 212 

Escaped, 12 

Died, 2 

Delivered  to  the  ordinary  tribunals,  .         .         .  14^ 

Remaining  at  end  of  1826. 100 

'  Mexico  as  it  was  and  as  it  is,  p.  269. 


Homicide, 

5 

Wounding  severely, 

.    30 

Robbery,  . 

8 

Attempt  to  rob, 

.   12 

Suspected  of  robbery, 

30 

Rioting, 

37 

Incontinence, 

.     4 

STATISTICS    OF    CRIME    IN    THE    CAPITAL.  153 

A  Mexican  statistical  bulletin,  presents  the  following  picture  of 
the  criminal  condition  of  the  federal  district,  for  the  8  first  months 
of  the  year  1836.  During  this  period  there  were  255  arrests  ;  53 
were  immediately  released  and  202  remained  in  prison.  These 
were  divided  as  follows : 

Counterfeiting  money,    .  15 

Forgery  of  documents,         .  1 

Drunkenness,  ...  17 

Quarreling,  .         .         .  41 

Resistance  of  authority.      .  2 

Total,  .  .  .202 
which  would  give  for  the  whole  twelve  months,  at  the  same  rate,  269 
for  the  number  retained. 

In  this  statement,  fifteen  individuals  are  reported  as  being  im- 
prisoned for  counterfeiting  coin,  yet  it  is  notorious  that,  at  this 
epoch,  all  Mexico  was  converted  into  a  manufactory  of  false 
money,  for  the  country  was  deluged  with  copper.  It  is  boldly 
alleged  that  deputies,  generals,  and  merchants,  participated  in  this 
scandalous  and  bold  speculation.  Santa  Anna,  in  order  to  check 
this  national  evil,  decreed  that  counterfeiting  should  be  considered 
a  military  crime,  and  the  offenders  made  liable  to  the  summary  and 
severe  trials  which  usually  take  place  when  soldiers  are  both 
judges  and  jurymen. 

The  subjoined  statistics  bring  these  statements  nearer  our  own 
period,  and  afford  means  of  comparison  with  antecedent  dates: 

Imprisonments  in  the  City  or  Mexico  for  1842. 

In  the  first  6  months  of  1842,  there  were  imprisoned  in 

the  city  of  Mexico,     ......         3,197  men. 

In  the  first  6  months  of  1842,        "         ''  "  1,427  women. 

In  the  second  6  months  of  1842,    "         "  "  2,858  men. 

In  the  second  6  months  of  1842,    "         "  "  1,379  women. 


Imprisonment  of  both  sexes  this  year,  .         .         8,861 

We  will  not  swell  these  tables  by  specifying  each  of  the  crimes 
for  which  these  8861  individuals  were  incarcer  .ed;  but  will  merely 
note  the  chief  violations  of  law  and  the  numuer  of  the  respective 
oflfenders : 


l./)00 

470 

1970 

312 

179 

491 

2,129 

1,140 

3,233 

612 

444 

1,056 

,   70 

17 

87 

65 

21 

86 

7 

1 

8 

3 

0 

3 

6934 

6934' 

1927 

154  GARROTTE MEXICAN    OPINIONS. 

Men.  Women.  Total. 
Robbery,  ....... 

Prostitution,  adultry,  bigamy,  sodomy  and   incest, 
Quarreling,  wounding,  ..... 

Rioting  and  bearing  arms,  .... 

Homicide  and  attempt  at  ditto,  and    robbery  and 
homicide,  ....... 

Rape  and  incontinence,     ..... 

Forgery, 

Gambling,         ...... 

Total, 
High  grades  of  crime, 
Misdemeanors, 

Total, 8861 

$4,12]  were  expended  for  salaries  in  the  Acordada ;  and  $30,232 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  prisoners.  It  should  be  stated,  moreover 
that  a  large  number  of  the  above  criminals  were  committed  and 
punished  for  throwing  vitriol  on  the  dress  and  faces  of  persons  in 
the  street;  —  that  113  dead  bodies  were  found;  —  894  individuals 
sent  to  hospitals  ;  and  17  executed  by  the  garrotte.  The  culprit 
who  is  sentenced  to  this  mode  of  expiating  his  crime  is  seated  in  a 
chair  on  the  scaffold,  whilst  his  neck  is  embraced  by  an  iron  collar 
which  may  be  contracted  by  a  screw.  A  sudden  and  rapid  turn  of 
the  lever  drives  a  sharp  point  through  the  spinal  marrow  at  the  mo- 
ment that  the  band  closes  around  the  throat  and  strangles  the  victim. 

Note.  —  In  confirmation  of  all  we  have  said  in  this  chapter  in  regard  to  the  ad- 
ministration and  condition  of  law  in  Mexico,  and  in  relation  to  the  army,  we  refer 
fo  an  ahlc  pamphlet  published  in  that  country,  in  1848,  entitled  "  Consiikracioncs  sobre 
la  Situarion  Politica  y  Social  de  la  Reptiblica  Mrjicanacn  el  ano  1847,"  written,  we 
understand,  by  Don  Francisco  Lerdo.  It  presents  a  dark  picture  of  the  country  at 
that  epoch  ;  but  tiie  author's  purpose  was  to  unmask  the  social  and  political  diseases 
of  his  country,  and  his  patriotic  task  was  the  more  needed  because  that  country  was 
on  the  brink  of  ruin  from  war. 

It  is  to  be  especially  noted  with  commendation  that  tlic  Mexicans  have  recently 
become  the  severest  critics  not  only  of  their  institutions  but  of  themselves.  The 
miserable,  boasting  spirit,  —  the  taste  for  grandiloquent  proclamations, —  the  in- 
discriiriiiiate  laudation  of  Mexican  virtue,  talent,  science,  honor,  valor,  and  justice, 
which  filled  the  papers  and  pamphlets  of  tlie  nation,  but  which  were  never  su-tained 
when  the  Mexicans  came  in  contact  either  with  highly  cultivated  foreigners  or 
were  opposed  by  foreign  arms,  have  all  been  greatly  qualified  since  the  war.  The 
combined  lessons  of  her  unsparing  but  truthful  satirists  and  of  her  invading  ene- 
mies, will  not  be  lost  on  a  peoj)le  really  sensible  and  sensitive,  though  bewildered 
for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  during  which  bombast  served  for  glory  or  con- 
solation when  anarchy  was  not  altogether  triumphant.  In  confirmation  of  this 
growing  spirit  of  self-examination  with  a  view  to  national  reform,  we  would  also 
refer  to  the  discreet  and  able  memoir  of  Don  Luis  G.  Cuevas,  minister  of  foieign 
and  domestic  relations,  read  by  him  before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  on  the  .''ilh  of 
January,  1849. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
REFLECTIONS   UPON   THE   REPUBLIC. 


WHAT  MEXICO  HAS  DONE REVIEW  OF  HER  CONDUCT  AND  CHAR- 
ACTER.   MEXICAN  OPINIONS CLASSES INDIANS MESTI- 
ZOS  WHITES   — ARMY CHURCH.^ DIVISIONS   OF  WHITES 

WANT  OF  HOMOGENEOUSNESS. WANT  OF  NATIONALITY  AND  OF 

A   PEOPLE REMEDIES EMIGRATION RELIGIOUS   LIBERTY 

POLITICAL  ORDER LABOR. 

Every  reader  who  has  accompanied  us  thus  far  in  studying  the 
history,  geography,  resources,  and  character  of  Mexico,  will  scarcely 
require  to  be  told  why  it  is  that  the  nation  has  continued  disor- 
ganized and  become  impoverished  in  the  midst  of  such  abundance 
as  has  been  lavished  upon  it  by  the  beneficence  of  God.  At  the 
conclusion  of  our  chapter  upon  the  commerce  of  Mexico  we  de- 
scribed the  remarkable  geographical  position  of  the  territory,  and 
have  shown  that,  by  the  laws  of  nature,  it  ought  to  enjoy  a  con- 
trolling influence  in  the  affairs  of  the  world.  And  yet  almost  three 
centuries  and  a  half  have  rolled  over  since  Cortez  planted  the 
Spanish  banner  on  the  palaces  of  Tenochtitlan,  and  still  the  ques- 
tion may  be  asked  whether  the  region  is  more  progressive  under 
republican  and  royal  rule  than  under  Aztec  sway?  The  world  has 
advanced^  commerce,  manufactures,  science,  literature  and  arts, 
but  Mexico  has  remained  comparatively  fixed  in  the  midst  of  a  stag- 
Uanf^semi-civilization.  She  has  not  exhibited  a  true  warlike  char- 
acter either  in  her  domestic  broils  or  in  her  opposition  to  a  foreign 
invader,  though  her  soil  has  been  converted  into  a  camp  for  nearly 
forty  years.  She  has  confessed  her  manifold  errors  by  her  indem- 
nities and  her  diplomacy,  though  she  has  contrived  to  invite  quar- 
rels, discussions  and  affronts  by  an  aggressive  demeanor  towards 
sojourners  in  her  territory.  A  religious  country  by  tlie  protective 
sanction  of  all  her  constitutions,  still  she  denies  the  right  of  consci- 
entious worship  to  all  who  come  within  her  borders.  With  a 
military  police,  and  an  immense  array  of  judicial  officers,  her  cities 
ancF  highways  are  thronged  with  felons  while  the  disputes  of  her 
citizens  linger  undecided  for  years  in  her  courts.  Her  domestic 
markets  are  ^Jear^and  she  has  but  little  to  spare  for  foreign  com- 
merce, though  her  soil  is  extraordinarily  fertile  and  her  climate  yields 


156       REVIEW  OF  HER  CONDUCT  AND  CHARACTER. 

the  fruits  and  grains  of  the  temperate  and  tropical  zones.  Throned 
on  mines,  she  is  a  borrower  at  exhorbitant  usury.  Washed  by  the 
two  great  oceans  of  the  globe,  her  mariners  are  fishermen  and  her 
vessels  skiffs.  Ready  at  all  times  to  borrow  from  every  capitalist, 
she  sees  her  opulent  citizens  send  their  wealth  abroad  for  invesL- 
ment  in  spite  of  the  tempting  interest  she  promises  to  pay.  Boast- 
ing of  faith,  she  is  without  credit.  At  peace  with  mankind  and 
fortified  by  nature,  she  is  forced  to  maintain  an  army  either  to  pro- 
tect her  from  herself  or  to  bribe  the  innumerable  remnants  of  her 
military  politicians  into  peace.  Endowed  with  a  constitution  and 
enjoying  the  name  of  a  republic,  she  beholds  that  constitution  vio- 
lated or  overthrown  by  her  army  without  even  demanding  the  con- 
sent of  the  people.  Vaunting,  in  the  most  grandiloquent  language, 
f^  her  intelligence,  glory  and  resources,  she  exhibits  not  a  single  evi- 
dence of  that  patriotic  unity  and  order  which  would  entitle  her  to 
domestic  confidence  and  foreign  respect.  Owning  an  extensive 
territory  which  is  attractive  not  only  for  its  essential  qualities  but 
for  its  magnificent  beauty  and  grandeur,  she  has  drawn  to  her 
shores,  since  the  conquest,  only  a  million  of  white  men.  Losing 
Texas,  which  in  her  hands  had  been,  for  all  this  time,  a  howl- 
iiig^wilderness  possessed  by  beasts  and  savages,  she  sees  that  slate 
become,  under  the  magic  influence  of  another  race,  an  independent 
nation,  a  maritime  power,  a  commercial  territory  yielding  millions 
annually  for  the  trade  of  the  world.  Surrendering  California  as  a 
boon  for  peace,  she  beholds  in  a  single  year,  the  sands  tjiat  had 
been  trodden  by  her  own  people  for  several  centuries,  turn  to  gold 
in  the  developing  hand  of  the  energetic  emigrants  to  whom  it  was 
given  up.  Impoverished,  haughty,  uneducated,  defiant,  bigoted, 
disputatious,  without  financial  credit,  beaten  in  arms,  far  behind  the 
age  in  mechanical  progress  or  social  civilization  and  loaded  with 
debt,  Mexico  presents  a  spectacle  in  the  nineteenth  century,  which 
moves  the  compassion  of  reflective  men  even  if  it  does  not  provoke 
the  cupidity  of  other  races  to  wrest  from  her  weak  grasp  a  region 
whose  value  she  neither  comprehends  nor  develops. _  This  com- 
passion is  the  result  of  a  genuine  sympathy  with  the  true  patriots 
who  really  love  their  country  and  know  its  worth,  but  whose  num- 
bers are  too  few  to  cope  with  the  scandalous  intriguers  and  ambi- 
tious soldiers  by  whom  the  nation  has  hitherto  been  converted  into 
a  gambling  table  and  its  money  and  offices  into  prizes. 

In  the  introductory  chapters  upon  the  viceroyai  government  and 
revolution  of  Mexico,  and  in  our  remarks  upon  the  growth  of  par 
ties  at  the  close  of  the  war  of  independence,  we  have  endeavorec* 


MEXICAN    OPINIONS CLASSES.  157 

to  exhibit  fairly  the  existing  causes  of  trouble  at  those  epochs.  ' 
There  was  an  apology  for  incapability  of  political  self-rule  when  a 
bad  government  or  a  degrading  despotism  was  suddenly  removed. 
But,  since  then,  twenty-six  years  have  elapsed ;  and,  in  more  than 
a  quarter  of  a  century,  mankind  is  fairly  entitled  to  demand  from 
Mexico  a  denial  of  the  sarcasm  of  her  oppressive  oidor  Bataller 
"  that  the  worst  punishment  to  be  inflicted  upon  the  Mexicans  is  to 
allow  them  to  govern  themselves  !  " 

Dark  as  is  this  picture  of  neighboring  republicans,  we  should 
have  been  loth  to  paint  it  had  not  our  careful  studies  of  their 
statistics  and  the  commentaries  of  their  own  citizens  justified  the 
sombre  coloring.  "For  our  own  part  we  believe,"  —  says  Don 
Francisco  Lerdo,  in  his  Considerations  upon  the  Social  and  Politi- 
cal Condition  of  the  Mexican  Republic  in  1847,  —  "that  all  this 
may  be  explained  in  a  few  words.  In  Mexico  there  neither  is  nor 
can  there  be  what  is  called  national  spirit^  because  tJiere  is  no 
nation.^'' ^ 

'  This,  perhaps,  is  the  key  of  Mexican  decadence.  The  national 
spirit  is  centrifugal,  if  any  thing  can  strictly  be  called  national 
when  citizen  is  armed  against  citizen,  and  when  men  in  civil  life 
and  politicians  in  public  life,  are  constantly  seeking  to  aggran- 
dize themselves  either  in  wealth  or  power  without  a  thought  of 
loyalty  to  the  constitution  which  should  perpetuate  and  consolidate 
national  unity  of  principle  and  action  in  spite  of  all  their  personal 
ambitions  or  party  dominations. 

If  we  recur  to  our  statistics  in  the  third  chapter  of  this  volume 
we  shall  find  that,  out  of  sjjven  millions  six  hundred  and  twenty- 
six  thousand  eight  hundred  and  thirty-one  inhabitants  of  the  repub- 
lic, it  is  calculated  that  four  millions  three  hundred  thousand 
are  Indians,  that  more  than  two  millions  are  either  mixed  bloods 
or  negroes,  and  only  about  one  million  white,  while,  of  the 
whole  population,  not  many  more  than  seven  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  are  to  be  regarded  as  either  edui^ated  or  at  all  in- 
structed !  The  most  numerous  class,  the  large  majority  of  Mexi- 
cans,—  the  Indians,  —  are  not  civilized.  We  make  this  assertion 
without  qualification.  They  are  tamed  and  have  been  compara- 
tively submissive ;  they  are  not  open  idolators  and  have  generally 
conformed,  according  to  their  limited  understanding  and  instruc- 
tion, to  the  direction. of  the  Catholic  priesthood;  but  neither  this 
taming  nor  this  conformity,  considered  relatively  to  their  general 
demeanor,  constitute  civilization  either  under  a  monarchy  or  a  re- 

'  See  vol.  1,  pages  *  Lerdo,  Consideraciones,  &c.,  &c.,  p.  42. 


158         INDIANS MESTIZOS WHITES  ARMY CHURCH. 

public.  The  Indians,  therefore,  regarded  as  a  political  or  social 
element  in  a  democracy,  are  not  fairly  to  be  valued  as  integral  con- 
stituencies of  the  Mexican  republic.  We  have  already  delineated 
the  character  of  this  class  and  will  not  recapitulate  the  points  ot 
sluggish  indifference  which  forbid  the  hope  of  its  elevation.  Less 
savage  than  the  North  American  red  man  and  hunter,  the  Mexican 
Indian  is  only  dwarfed  in  energy  and  in  the  expression  of  passion, 
by  the  emasculating  influence  of  the  climate.  In  all  other  respeds 
he  resembles  the  tenant  of  our  western  forests  and  will  neither  will- 
ingly mingle  with  us,  adopt  our  habits,  nor  labor  for  others  upon  a 
soil  which  spontaneously  supplies  his  wants.  In  his  passive  state 
he  is  content  with  imitation ;  in  his  aroused  anger  he  rushes 
blindly  and  vindictively  into  danger, ^nd.  is  willing  to  die  rather  for_^ 
revenge  than  for  right.  Is  it  not  folly  then  to  ask  this  class  to  com- 
prehend the  representative  system?  Nor  can  we  justly  expect  its 
comprehension  and  correspondent  adherence  or  practice  from  the 
unenlightened  Mixed  Races,  especially  when  those  races  do  not 
derive  their  origin,  exclusively,  from  pure  white  stocks,  but  are 
formed  by  a  medly  mosaic  of  Indian,  African,  Oriental  and 
Spanish.  The  hope  of  Mexico  must,  therefore,  repose  in  the 
whites  alone ;  and,  on  this  class  we  might  confidently  rely  as  the 
nucleus  around  which  future  numbers  and  civilization  would 
gather,  if  we  found  them  orderly,  free,  united  and  firm  in  adher- 
ence to  their  constitution  modified  by  the  indispensable  addition 
of  relisrious  liberty  and  the  speedy  as  well  as  inflexible  administra- 
tion ot  justice.  But,  in  this  small  class,  we  have  the  most  serious 
difficulties  to  contend  with,  for,  without  constitutional  recognition, 
the  officers  of  the  army,  the  hierarchy,  and  the  intriguing  politicians, 
form  three  distinct  powerful  bodies  who  must  blend  in  perfect 
union  for  mutual  support,  or  must  be  content  to  see  the  country  in- 
volved in  civil  war  if  they  differ. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  origin  and  continuance  of  the  army's 
influence,  and  the  natural  despotic  tendencies  of  that  class.  It  re- 
presents Force.  It  is,  moreover,  a  historical  fact,  that  the  Mexican 
church  does  not  confine  itself  to  matters  of  faith,  but,  as  the  richest 
national  proprietor  and  as  the  comptroller  of  conscience  by  virtue  of 
the  constitution,  has  constantly  quitted  the  cloister  to  fight  in  the 
arena  of  politics.  Nor  was  its  weapon  weak,  for  it  was  armed  with 
Superstition.  Wielding  the  bolts  of  spiritual  thunder  in  a  nation 
in  which  no  other  religion  is  tolerated  or  known ;  possessing  the 
power  of  discovery  by  confession,  and  of  control  by  penance,  ex- 
communication, anathemas,  and  ecclesiastical  interdicts ;  ruling  the 


DIVISIONS    OF    WHITES WANT    OF    HOMOGENEOUSNESS.     159 

soul  without  appeal,  and  grasping  the  purse,  it  will  be  at  once  seen 
what  a  powerful  element  of  influence  such  an  institution  must  be- 
come when  directed  by  a  single  head.  If  the  masses  would  prey 
upon  the  church,  it  was  the  policy  of  the  church  to  support  the 
army ;  Jf  the^_people  desired  to  destroy  the  arrny,  it  was  the  interest 
of  the  army  to  support  a  church  which  could  control  by  con- 
science or  bribe  by  money  the  miscalled  representatives  of  the  peo- 
ple. ^  With  force  and  superstition,  thus  welded  together  by  in- 
terest, the  representative  system  can  expect  but  little  favor  from 
these  two  important  divisions  of  the  white  race. 

Is  there  hopeful  reliance,  then,  upon  another  power  which  is 
controlled  by  a  portion  of  the  educated  whites?  The  Liberty  of  the 
Press,  in  Mexico  has  disappointed  its  warmest  advocates.  An  in- 
strument which  should  ever  be  used  for  the  enlightenment  of  the 
multitude  has  been  emploj^igd  only  to  demoralize  and  deceive  it. 
Instead  of  attacking  bravely  all  abuses  of  administration  and  all 
international  prejudices,  or  weaknesses ;  instead  of  holding  the  ex- 
ecutive departments  to  strict  accountability  before  the  chambers 
and  the  people ;  instead  of  displaying  frankly  the  vital  interests 
and  materials  of  social  reorganization,  and  thus  contributing  to  the 
common  prosperity  and  peace  of  the  country,  the  periodical  press 
of  Mexico,  with  few  honorable  exceptions,  has  fostered  the  meanest 
passions  and  hatreds  of  the  ignorant  masses  and  has  betrayed  pub- 
lic opinion  by  trafficking  with  or  truckling  to  the  men  or  the  classes 
who  live  by  public  abuses  and  disorder. ^  Instead  of  checking  and 
thwarting  the  interference  of  the  church  in  civil  affairs,  it  has  stood 
mute  or  appalled  before  the  ecclesiastical  power.  If  there  is  no  re- 
liance, therefore,  on  the  press,  what  available  trust  may  be  reposed 
in  the  pure,  civil  patriots,  men  of  letters,  professional  characters, 
merchants  and  proprietors .''  The  slender  numbers  of  this  class, 
compared  with  the  army,  church,  Enrpleados  or  government  em- 
ployees, and  intriguing  civilians  connected  either  with  the  state  in 
its  various  departments  p{  finance,  or  with  the  press,  at  once  de- 
prive it  of  equality  in  influence.  In  all  the  turns  of  fortune  in 
Mexico,  these  men  have,  hitherto,  never  been  able  to  command  the 
country  for  any  length  of  time  so  as  to  give  a  permanent  beneficial 
direction  to  public  affairs,  and  we  may,  therefore,  readily  agree  with 
Lerdo  in  believing  that  his  country  possesses  no  elements  of  na- 
tionality.    He  might  have  gone  further  in  his  analysis,  and  declared 

'  Lerdo,  Consideraciones,  p.  46,  47. 

*  Lerdo  43.  —  Cuevas's  memoir   of  1849,  as  Mexican  Minister  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  relations,  p.  29  of  American  translation. 


160  WANT    OF    NATIONALITY    AND    OF    A    PEOPLE 

that  there  was  no  nationality  because  there  w^as  no  People  ;  for 
who  will  dignify  with  that  republican  name  such  discordant  and 
heterogeneous  materials  of  races,  characters,  politics  and  purposes. 
4  People  is  not  a  mere  aggregation  of  human  beings.  A  nation, 
in  the  true  sense  of  nationality,  is  only  a  great  family,  for  whose 
strength  and  power  it  is  necessary  that  all  its  individual  members 
should  be  intimately  united  by  the  bonds  of  interest,  sympathy  and 
affection.  Such  a  nation  may  form  a  government,  but  it  is  dilficult 
for  a  government  to  form  such  a  nation.  And  this  was  the  peculiarly 
fortunate  position  of  our  North  American  states  at  the  period  of 
Independence,  for  we  had  no  political  and  social  revolution  to 
effect.  Our  people  and  our  government  grew  up  together.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  the  United  States  were  poor.  The  military  men 
had  enjoyed  no  revenue  from  their  services  but  personal  honor. 
They  were  badly  fed,  paid  and  clothed.  There  was  no  rich,  ready 
made  prize  to  be  seized  by  ambitious  or  avaricious  men  in  the 
gorged  treasury  of  a  nation.  All  were  essentially  equal  because  all 
were  equally  forced  to  work  for  livelihood.  There  was  no  recog- 
nized class  in  government  or  society.  We  were  all  of  one  blood, 
and  did  not  fall  into  the  error  of  amalgamation  with  Indians  and 
negroes.  We  were  controlled  by  reason  and  not  governed  by  pas- 
sions or  instincts.  We  had  nothing  but  liberty  and  space;  soil  and 
freedom.  Our  soldiers  were  rewarded  with  land ;  but  that  land 
was  in  the  wilderness  and  exacted  toil  to  make  it  productive  ;  and 
thus,  compulsory  industry  diverted  the  minds  of  our  political 
founders  from  those  ambitious  enterprises,  which  by  the  aid  of  the 
military  have  so  long  degraded  Mexico.  Conquest  and  rapid 
Fruition,  —  was  the  maxim  of  Spain;  Occupation  and  Develop- 
ment,—  the  policy  of  England.  The  eager  Iberian  was  prompt 
and  headlong  in  the  adventurous  life  of  discovery.  The  cautious 
Anglo  Saxon  followed  in  his  steps,  ready  to  glean  and  replant  the 
fields  that  had  been  hardly  reaped  of  their  virgin  harvests. 

We  have  endeavored  to  analyze  candidly  the  condition  of  the 
Mexican  republic,  and,  in  performing  the  disagreeable  task  we  havt 
been  guided  not  only  by  our  own  personal  observations  in  the 
country,  but  by  the  argumentative  criticisms  of  native  writers 
Having  ascertained  the  disease  it  is  our  duty  to  seek  the  remedy 
The  obvious  policy  of  Mexico,  under  existing  circumstances,  is  tt 
exhibit  a  firm,  constitutional,  orderly,  peaceful  aspect,  which,  to- 
gether with  her  manifold  allurements  of  soil,  fliinate,  and  geogra- 
phical situation,  will  gradually  attract  to  her  shores  the  eager  mul- 


REMEDIES EMIGRATI  'N RELIGIOUS    LIBERTY.  161 

titudes  who  are  seeking  a  new  home  in  America.  Emigration  is 
the  overflowing  of  a  bitter  cup.  Men  do  not  ordinarily  leave  the 
land  of  their  birth,  the  home  of  their  infancy,  their  parents,  friends 
and  companions,  for  the  untried  hazards  of  a  land  in  which  there  is 
no  community  of  laws,  habits,  and  language,  unless  poverty  and  bad 
government  force  them  into  the  wilderness.  They  depart  to  better 
their  lot.  They  must  have  the  assurance,  therefore,  of  their  rights 
in  property  and  personal  liberty  guarantied  by  stable  laws  promptly 
administered  by  incorruptible  judges.  Such  meritorious  emigrants 
will  not  populate  Mexico  unless  she  demonstrates  her  capacity  for 
order  and  security ;  and,  without  these  accessions,  we  have  shown 
that  Mexico  never  will,  as  she  does  not  now,  possess  a  republican 
People.  She  must  cultivate  the  civil  idea ;  she  must  abandon  her 
military  parade  ;  she  must  discard  her  habitual  bombast  and  grand- 
iloquence ;  she  must  banish  the  despots  who  have  debauched  and 
plundered  her ;  she  must  reform  her  social  life  and  learn  to  believe 
that  there  are  other  pleasures  worthy  the  notice  of  men  besides 
gambling,  bull  baiting  and  cock  fighting ;  and,  above  all,  she  must 
establish  religious  liberty.  It  is  an  absurd  idea  that  nationality 
can  be  preserved  by  enforcing  Catholicity  by  virtue  of  the  consti- 
tution. The  Roman  church  must  consent  to  share  this  earth,  — 
the  patrimony  of  mankind,  —  with  other  believers  and  spiritual  la- 
borers. It  cannot  monopolize  the  soil,  even  if  it  can  control  the 
faith.  The  day  of  raonoply  is  gone,  —  that  of  individuality  has 
come,  and  there  can  be  no  good  government  that  is  not  founded  on 
tolerant  Christianity,  which  is  the  creed  of  Love,  the  enemy  of 
Force,  the  founder  of  true  Democracy.^ 

When  an  orderly  and  firm  government  shall  have  been  estab- 
lished, Mexico  will  be  refreshed  continually  by  the  energizing  blood 
of  a  hardy,  industrious  and  enterprising  white  race  from  beyond  the 
sea.  Germany  wall  send  her  sons  and  daughters  ;  Ireland,  France, 
England,  Italy  and  Spain  wnll  contribute  theirs.  The  various 
nations,  mingling  slowly  by  marriage  with  the  white  Mexicans, 
will  amalgamate  and  neutralize  each  other  into  homogeneous  na- 
tionality. Mexico  may  thus  gradually  congregate  a  People. 
The  language  of  the   country  wall,  in   all  likelihood,  be  preserved; 

'  It  will  scarcely  be  credited,  but  such  is  nevertheless  the  fact,  that  it  was  once 
seriously  contemplated  in  Mexico  to  deny  the  right  of  sepulture  to  all  strangers 
who  were  not  Catholics,  and  that  the  point  was  only  overruled  by  an  ingenious  lib- 
eralist,  who  contended  that  it  was  certainly  healthier  for  the  living  Catholics  that 
the  dead  heretic  should  rot  beneath  the  ground,  than  taint  the  atmosphere  by  decay- 
ing above  it !  The  priests  have  constantly  and  violently  opposed  marriages  between 
Mexicans  and  foreigners,  unless  they  were  Catholics. 
U 


162  POLITICAL     ORDER LABOR. 

for  the  white  natives  who  now  speak  Spanish  will  of  course  form, 
for  many  years,  the  bulk  of  the  population,  and  when  they  die, 
their  offspring  and  the  offspring  of  the  emigrants  will  know  but  one 
tongue.  There  will  thus  be  no  violent  extirpation  of  races  ;  but  a 
slow  and  genial  modification.  Modern  inventions,  arts,  tastes, 
science,  emulation,  new  forms  of  thought,  new  modes  of  develop- 
ment, will  be  introduced  and  implanted  by  these  emigrants.  The 
million  of  white  men,  and  the  two  millions  of  mestizos,  will  become 
more  prosperous  under  the  increased  trade  and  industry  of  the 
nation.  A  good  government  will  be  ensured,  for  the  hardy  emi- 
grants fly  from  the  political  oppression  and  poverty  of  the  old  world 
to  enjoy  peaceful  liberty  in  this. 

There  is  nothing  in  this  scheme  of  progress  to  which  a  good 
man  or  a  republican  can  object,  and  if  Mexico  is  sincere  in  her 
professions  of  democracy,  and  not  merely  anxious  to  preserve  intact 
the  fragments  of  a  ruined  Spanish  colony,  vnthout  a  people  and 
without  nationality,  she  will  imitate  the  example  of  the  United 
States  and  welcome  to  her  vallies  and  mountains  all  who  are  will- 
ing to  approach  her  in  the  name  of  order,  labor,  and  liberty.  But 
if  she  stubbornly  adheres  to  her  stupid  self-seclusion,  and  bars  the 
portals  of  her  splendid  empire  with  the  revolutionary  impediments 
that  are  annually  scattered  over  the  republic,  she  will  break  the 
beautiful  promise  given  to  humanity  in  the  success  of  her  revolution ; 

"  Something  there  was  in  her  life  incomplete,  imperfect,  unfinished, 
As  if  a  morning  in  June  with  all  its  music  and  sunshine, 
Suddenly  paused  in  the  sky,  and  fading  slowly  descended 
Into  the  east  again,  from  whence  it  late  had  arisen  !  " 

Longfellow's  Evangeline. 


BOOK    V. 


THE   MEXICAN   STATES   AND   TERRITORIES; 
THEIR   GEOGRAPHICAL  DIVISIONS,  CITIES,  TOWNS, 
PRODUCTIONS,  MINES,  GENERAL  CHARACTER- 
ISTICS, ANTIQUITIES,  Etc. 


BOOK     V. 

THE   MEXICAN    STATES   AND  TERRITORIES; 

THEIR    GEOGRAPHICAL    DIVISIONS,    CITIES,    TOWNS,    PRODUCTIONS, 
MINES,    GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS,    ANTIQUITIES,  ETC. 


CHAPTER   I. 

DIVISION    OF    MEXICO    INTO    STATES EASTERN,    WESTERN,    INTERIOR. 

YUCATAN BOUNDARIES,     DEPARTMENTS,     POPULATION,     DISTRICTS, 

TOWNS,  PARISHES,  PRODUCTIONS,  PRINCIPAL    TOWNS,  ISLANDS,  HAR- 
BORS.  CHIAPAS BOUNDARIES,  PRODUCTS,  DEPARTMENTS,  TOWNS, 

RIVERS,   POPULATION REMAINS    IN    YUCATAN    AND    CHIAPAS. DIS- 
COVERIES OF    STEPHENS,   CATHERWOOD,  NORMAN,   ETC. PALENQUE 

UXMAL YUCATAN  CALENDAR. YUCATAN,  CHIAPAN,  MECHOACAN, 

NICARAGUA  AND    MEXICAN    MONTHS. YUCATESE    AND    CHIAPAN  CY- 
CLE.  YUCATESE     AND     MEXICAN     SOLAR     YEAR DIFFERENCES. 

YUCATESE     MONTHS. TABASCO BOUNDARIES,     RIVERS,     LAGUNE, 

INHABITANTS,  PRODUCTIONS,  TOWNS  AND  VILLAGES. 

In  treating  this  branch  of  our  subject  we  have  followed  the  order 
adopted  by  Miihlenpfordt  in  his  "Republik  Mejico,"  and  acknow- 
ledge the  important  assistance  we  have  derived  from  the  careful, 
minute  and  laborious  personal  researches  made  by  that  industrious 
German  author  relative  to  the  geography  of  Mexico.  Since  the 
publication  of  his  volumes,  in  which  he  had  been  greatly  aided  by 
the  previous  works  of  Humboldt,  Ward,  Burkhardt  and  other  ex- 
plorers during  the  present  century,  the  Mexican  government  has 
organized  a  Statistical  Commission,  whose  investigations  have  been 
published  in  a  series  of  Bulletins,  and  to  these  we  are  indebted  for 
recent  authentic  information  about  some  of  the  most  interesting  por- 
tions of  Mexico.  The  northern  regions,  meanwhile,  have  been 
illustrated  by  the  explorations  of  Fremont,  Abert,  Emory,  Wislize- 
nius,  Cooke,  Simpson,  and  other  officers  of  the  American  Govern- 
ment; but  as  most  of  the  territory  examined  by  them  has  become 
the  property  of  the  United  States  by  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe,  their 
labors  are  not  of  importance  in  describing  the  Republic  of  Mexico 
as  at  present  bounded.  In  the  last  Book  of  this  work,  however, 
which  we  have  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  California  and  New 
Mexico,  we  shall  recur  to  those  brave  and  scientific  explorers  of  a 
remote  region,  so  recently  a  wilderness,  but  which  their  labors,  and 


166  EASTERN WESTERN INTERIOR YUCATAN. 

the  combined  fortune  of  war  and  mineral  wealth  have  subdued  for 
the  benefit  of  mankind. 

In  accordance  with  the  plan  proposed  in  the  separate  considera- 
tion of  the  several  States  and  Territories  of  Mexico,  we  shall  divide 
them  into  three  groups: — those  on  the  eastern  or  Gulf  coast;  those 
on  the  western  or  Pacific  coast,  and  those  in  the  interior. 

I. — Eastern  or    Gulf    Coast. 
The  State  of  Yucatan.  The  State  of  Vera  Cruz. 

"    State  of  Chiapas.  "    State  of  Tamaulipas. 

"    State  of  Tabasco. 

II. — Western  or    Pacific    Coast. 

The  State  of  Oajaca.  The  State  of  Jalisco. 

"    State  of  Puebla.  "    Territory  of  Colima. 

"    Territory  of  Tlascala.  "    State  of  Sinaloa. 
"    State  of  Mexico  and  Federal      "    State  of  Sonora. 

District.  "    State  of  Guerrero. 

The  State  of  Michoacan.  "    Territory  of  L.  California. 

III. — Inte  ri  or. 
The  State  of  Queretaro.  The  State  of  New  Leon. 

"    State  of  Guanajuato.  "    State  of  Coahuila. 

"    State  of  Zacatecas.  "    State  of  Durango. 

"    State  of  San  Luis  Potosi.  "    State  of  Chihuahua. 


THE    STATE    OF   YUCATAN. 

The  State  of  Yucatan,  sometimes  known  by  the  name  of  Merida 
or  Campech^,  occupies  the  greater  portion  of  the  peninsula  which 
bounds  the  southern  edge  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  eastern  side 
is  washed  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  touched  by  the  settlements  at 
Balize;  on  the  south  it  is  bounded  by  Guatemala;  on  the  west  by 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  States  of  Chiapas  and  Tabasco,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  river  Paicutun  that  falls  into  the  Lag- 
nua  de  Terminos.  Its  northern  coast  extends  from  Cape  Catoch6 
to  the  Punta  de  Piedras,  about  eighty-six  leagues ;  and  the  whole 
area  of  the  State  is  computed  at  3,823  square  leagues. 

Yucatan  possesses  very  few  streams  and  none  of  importance  that 
are  known  or  explored.  On  the  west  of  the  peninsula,  debouching 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  there  are  the  rivers  or  rivulets  of  Escatalto, 
Chen,  Champoton; — the  San  Francisco  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Cam- 
peche;  in  the  north  there  are  the  Silan,  the  Cedros,  and  the  Conil; 
while  the  streams  of  Bolina,  the  Rio  Nuevo,  the  Bacalar,  the  As- 


"Women. 

Total. 

58,663 

107,269 

37,933 

70,848 

64,697 

122,824 

46,926 

92,279 

40,639 

79,656 

BOUNDARIES DEPARTMENTS POPULATION.        167 

cension,  and  the  Honda  or  Rio  Grande  pour  into  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
In  1841  the  population  of  the  State  is  stated  in  a  census,  taken  by 
order  of  the  government,  as  follows : 

Departments.  Men. 

Merida, 48,606 

Izamal, 32,915 

Tekax, 58,127 

Valladolid, 45,353 

Campeche,     ....     39,017 

Total, 224,018  248,858  472,876 

This  census,  although  it  professes  to  be  accurate,  may  neverthe- 
less be  incomplete,  inasmuch  as  the  inhabitants  of  Yucatan,  dread- 
ing new  contributions  and  detesting  military  service,  endeavor  to 
reduce  as  much  as  possible  the  number  of  their  families  in  the  lists 
prepared  for  government.  Besides  this,  it  does  not  appear  to  com- 
prehend all  the  departments  according  to  Miihlenpfordt,  who  divides 
the  State  into  fifteen  departments.^  The  population  has  been  esti- 
mated by  some  careful  writers,  acquainted  with  the  people  and  the 
country,  at  525,000  souls;  in  our  table  of  population  on  page  42  of 
this  volume,  we  have  on  good  authority  stated  the  number  to  be, 
in  1842,  508,948,  while  others  have  increased  the  number  to  600,- 
000  and  even  to  630,000,  which  amount  is  assigned  to  Yucatan  by 
a  census  in  1833!  The  last  mentioned  number  will  give  about  165 
individuals  to  each  square  league.  ^ 

The  character  and  quality  of  the  productions  of  Yucatan  may  be 
estimated  by  the  following  statistical  table,  which  has  been  transla- 
ted and  published  by  Mr.  Stephens  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Inci- 
dents of  Travel  in  that  State. 

^  Bacalar,  Campeche,  Ichmul  or  IzameJ,  Isla  de  Carmen,  Jequetchacan,  Junoma, 
Lerma,  Mama,  Merida,  Oxhuscab,  Seyba,  Playa,  Sotula,  Tizizimin,  and  Valladolid, 
These  are  the  nanies  of  the  Departments  given  by  Miihlenpfordt :  the  first  table  is 
taken  from  Stephens. 

^Our  table  of  population  on  page  43  of  this  volume,  adds  about  10  per  cent  to  this 
number  to  give  the  population  estimated  in  1850. 


168 


DISTRICTS TOWNS PARISHES PRODUCTIONS. 


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PRINCIPAL    TOWNS ISLANDS HARBORS.  169 

The  principal  towns  of  Yucatan,  are,  1st:  the  capital,  Merida, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  about  ten  leagues  from  the  coast, 
containing  a  population  of  near  15,000  individuals.  Its  port  is 
the  small  haven  of  Sisal,  which  is  in  reality  nothing  but  a  bleak 
roadstead,  protected  by  a  fort  and  a  sand  bank. 

2nd  :  San  Francisco  de  Campeche,  with  a  population  of 
about  9,000;  —  a  port  which  is  considered  by  navigators  one  of 
the  best  in  the  state,  yet  is  by  no  means,  a  secure  or  comfortable 
anchorage. 

3rd :  Valladolid,  the  chief  town  of  the  district  of  that  name, 
with  near  4,000  inhabitants. 

4th  :  San  Felipe  de  Bacalar,  or  Salamanca  ;  a  town  and  military 
post  in  the  district  of  that  name,  containing  a  garrison  and  about 
one  hundred  and  twenty  houses. 

Besides  these,  there  are  the  villages  of  Xampolan,  Jequetchacan, 
Lerma,  Champoton,  between  the  rivers  Campeche  and  Champoton 
on  the  west  coast,  and  Silan,  Santa  Clara,  Vigia  del  rio  and  Cha- 
boana,  on  the  north  coast.  In  the  interior  there  are  many  Indian 
villages. 

The  Island  of  Cozumel  on  the  east  coast  of  Yucatan — which  was 
the  first  land  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  their  voyage  to  Mexi- 
co,—  is  now  almost  uninhabited,  and  contains  some  ancient  re- 
mains, which  are  probably  the  ruins  of  the  splendid  structures  that 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  adventurers,  and  satisfied  them  they 
had  reached  a  land  which  w^as  sufliciently  civilized  to  be  worthy 
their  exploration  and  plunder. 

It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  Yucatan  affords  no  safe  har- 
bors or  anchorages,  which  would  either  tempt  commercial  enterprise 
to  her  shores,  or  afford  vessels  of  war  sufficient  protection  so  as  to 
render  the  peninsula  valuable  in  a  military  point  of  view.  Yet  it 
seems  from  an  official  copy  of  a  recent  British  survey  of  the  coast  of 
Yucatan,  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  office  of  our  Coast  Survey  in 
Washington,  that  there  is  a  fine  harbor  for  vessels  of  any  size  un- 
der the  island  of  Mugeres,  the  easternmost  point  of  Yucatan,  where 
they  may  ride  at  anchor  in  safety,  protected  from  winds  in  every 
direction.  The  harbors  of  Ascension  and  Espiritu  Bay,  are  repre- 
sented as  good  ;  the  latter  being  capable  of  holding  a  fleet  of  the 
heaviest  kind  of  English  frigates  and  war  steamers.  There  is 
good  anchorage,  moreover,  off  the  nurth-easL  point  of  the  island  of 
Cozumel.^ 

'  See  Senator  Cass'  speech,  on  the  proposed  occupation  of  Yucatan, in  the  Senate, 
May  10th,  1848,  p.  7. 
V 


170   CHIAPAS,  ROUNDARIES,  PRODUCTS,  DEPARTMENTS,  ETC. 

THE    STATE    OF    CHIAPAS. 

This  state  has  been  very  inadequately  examined.  It  is  bounded 
north  by  Tabasco  ;  south  and  south-west  by  the  Repubhc  of  Central 
America,  or  Guatemala ;  west  by  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz  and  by  a 
small  part  of  Oajaca  ;  and  on  the  east  partly  by  Yucatan  and  partly 
by  Guatemala.  Until  the  year  1833  the  territory  comprised  in  this 
division  belonged  to  Guatemala,  when  it  joined  the  Mexican  con- 
federacy. Comprehending  the  northern  declivities  of  the  Cordil- 
leras and  table  lands  of  Central  America,  Chiapas  is,  throughout  a 
considerable  part  of  its  territory,  cut  up  into  successions  of  ridges 
and  valleys,  which  are  rich  in  many  of  the  finest  tropical  productions. 
Corn,  cacao,  sugar  and  garden  vegetables  are  produced  readily.  To- 
bacco of  good  quality  grows  in  the  district  of  Sandoval,  and  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Oajaca.  In  the  district  of  Tonala,  a  small  quan- 
tity of  indigo  of  an  extraordinarily  fine  quahty  is  cultivated ;  and 
here,  also,  pepper  and  the  maguey  plant  are  yielded  plentifully. 
Ananas,  sapotes,  bananas,  figs,  apricots  and  various  similar  fruits 
abound  in  Chiapas,  while  in  its  forests,  oaks,  cedar,  mahogany, 
ebony,  and  other  valuable  woods  are  found  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. But  the  greater  part  of  this  fruitful  state  is  still  an  unknown 
waste,  which  the  labors  of  other  races  must  fully  explore  and  develop. 

Chiapas  is  divided  into  four  departments  and  nine  districts, 
which,  together,  possess  92  parishes. 

1st :  The  Department  of  the  Centre,  with  12  parishes,  besides 
the  capital  of  Ciudad-Real,  or  San  Cristoval  de  los  Llanos  and  the 
the  town  of  Chamula. 

2nd  :  The  Department  of  the  South,  with  10  parishes,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Llanos,  1 1  in  Ocozingo,  and  17  in  Tuxtla. 

3rd  :  The  Department  of  the  West,  with  the  district  of  Ystoco- 
mitan,  containing  17  parishes  ;  Tonala,  3  parishes ;  and  Palenque, 
4  parishes. 

4th  :  The  Department  of  the  North,  with  the  districts  of  Tila, 
containing  6  parishes,  and  Simojoval,  12  parishes. 

The  chief  towns  are,  Ciudad-Real,  or  San  Cristoval  de  los 
Llanos  ;  a  fine  town  with  about  6,000  inhabitants,  possessing  a 
cathedral  church,  four  convents  for  monks,  and  one  for  nuns,  two 
chapels,  and  a  hospital.  The  first  bishop  of  Chiapas,  who  erected 
the  see  of  that  name  in  1538,  was  the  renowned  Bartolomeo  de  las 
Casas,  whose  fame  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the  early  history 
of  the  country,  by  his  constant  and  merciful  interference  in  behalf 
of  the  Indians. 


RIVERS,   POPULATION,  REMAINS   IN  YUCATAN   AND  CHIAPAS.      171 

The  other  important  towns  are  San  Juan  Chamula,  containing 
4,000  inhabitants ;  San  Bartolom^o  de  los  Llanos,  whose  7,000 
people  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  sugar,  to- 
bacco and  corn;  San  Domingo  Comitlan;  San  Jacinto  Ocozingo, 
with  3,000  inhabitants  who  devote  themselves  to  the  care  of  cattle, 
and  cultivate  some  cacao  and  corn  ;  Tuxtla,  with  5,000  inhabitants 
who  trade  in  tobacco  and  cacao  ;  San  Domingo  Sinacantan,  on  the 
borders  of  Tabasco  in  the  territory  of  the  Zoques,  with  2,500  in- 
habitants who  employ  themselves  in  the  culture  of  silk,  of  which 
they  weave  shawls  and  other  similar  fabrics,  which  are  esteemed  of 
a  good  merchantable  quality,  and  are  used  in  the  country  or  adjacent 
states  ;  Chiapa  de  los  Indios ;  Tecpatlan  ;  Ostoacan  ;  Teopixca ; 
Acapala ;  Capanabastla ;  Izcuintenango  ;  San  Fernando  Guada- 
lupe ;  and  Simojovel. 

Chiapas  is  represented  to  be  rich  in  rivers  which  rise  chiefly  in 
the  highlands  towards  the  state  of  Tabasco  and  debouche  into  the 
Mexican  Gulf.  The  Tabasco  river  or  the  Rio  de  Grijalva ;  the 
Usumasinta,  the  Chicsoi  or  the  Santa  Isabella  ;  —  the  Machaquita, 
San  Pedro,  Dolores,  Yalchitan,  Chacamas,  Zeldales,  Yeixhihujat, 
Chatlan,  and  some  others  ;  the  Pacaitun  or  Paicutun ;  the  laguna 
de  Chiapa  ;  some  mineral  waters  ;  and  a  valuable  salt  spring  in 
the  vicinity  of  San  Mateo,  enrich  various  portions  of  this  fertile 
state,  whose  cUmate,  especially  in  its  higher  regions,  is  said  to  be 
delicious  and  uniform.  The  number  of  the  population  of  this  state 
is  not  officially  known.  In  1831,  a  census  made  by  order  of  the 
governor  Ignacio  Gutierrez,  which  however,  did  not  include  fifteen 
parishes,  gave  118,775  inhabitants  for  the  rest  of  the  state.  An 
estimate  in  a  Mexican  calendar  of  1833  represents  the  number  to 
be  about  96,000,  while  the  government  calculation  for  a  basis  of 
representation  in  Congress  in  1842,  gives  it  141,206,  to  which  about 
10  per  cent,  should  be  added  to  give  the  proximate  population  in 
1850.  The  Indian  tribes  of  the  Zoques,  Cendales  or  Zeldales, 
Teochiapan^cos  and  Mames  are  still  very  numerous,  and,  of  course, 
form  the  greater  part  of  the  population. 

Ancient  Remains  in  Yucatan  and  Chiapas. 

The  physical  description  of  these  two  States,  presented  in  the 
preceding  pages,  will  have  satisfied  the  reader  that  they  possess  a 
prolific  soil  and  an  agreeable  climate  which  would  probably  attract 
a  large  population  had  they  been  properly  explored  and  developed 
by  an  energetic  race.     We  are  sustained  in  this  belief  by  the  fact, 


172      DISCOVERIES  OK  STEPHENS,  CATHERWOOD,  NORMAN,  ETC 

that  in  these  States  travellers  have  found  the  most  remarkable  re- 
mains of  an  advanced  ancient  civilization  hitherto  discovered  on 
our  continent.  What  has  existed  may  exist  again  under  the  be- 
nignant influence  of  modern  progress;  nor  is  it  improbable  that  as 
human  interests  direct  the  attention  of  maritime  or  emigrating  na- 
tions towards  the  central  portions  of  the  western  continent,  Yucatan 
and  Chiapas  may  again  become  the  seat  of  a  population  even  larger 
than  that  which  thronged  it  during  the  palmy  days  anterior  to  the 
Spanish  conquest. 

Since  the  year  1840  three  important  w^orks  have  been  published 
in  this  country  relative  to  these  ancient  remains  of  towns,  temples, 
cities,  idols  and  monuments.  Two  of  these  are  due  to  the  pen  and 
pencil  of  Mr.  John  L.  Stephens  and  Mr.  Catherwood,  while  the 
other  and  slighter  production  is  the  result  of  a  hasty  visit  paid  to 
Yucatan  by  Mr.  B.  M.  Norman.  These  three  publications,  plenti- 
fully illustrated  by  accurate  engravings  of  the  ruins  and  remains, 
have  been  so  widely  disseminated  throughout  Europe  and  America 
that  readers  are  already  familiar  with  them.  In  the  "long,  irregular 
and  devious  route"  pursued  by  Stephens  and  Catherwood,  they 
"discovered  the  crumbling  remains  oi  fifty-four  ancient  cities,  most 
of  them  hut  a  short  distance  apart,  though,  from  the  great  change 
that  has  taken  place  in  the  country,  and  the  breaking  up  of  the  old 
roads,  having  no  direct  communication  with  each  other.  With  but 
few  exceptions,  all  were  lost,  buried  and  unknown,  never  before 
visited  by  a  stranger,  and  some  of  them,  perhaps,  never  looked  upon 
by  the  eyes  of  a  white  man."  Leaving  Guatemala,  the  travellers 
encountered,  in  Chiapas,  remarkable  remains  at  Ocozingo  and  Pa- 
lenque;  and  passing  thence  into  Yucatan,  in  their  second  journey 
to  those  central  regions,  they  explored  and  described  the  architec- 
tural and  monumental  relics  at  Maxcanu,  Uxmal,  Sacbey,  Xampon, 
Sanacte,  Chunhuhu,  Labpahk,  Iturbide,  Mayapan,  San  Francisco, 
Ticul,  Nochacab,  Xoch,  Kabah,  Sabatsche,  Labna,  Kenick,  Izamal, 
Saccacal,  Tekax,  Akil,  Mani,  Macoba,  Becanchen,  Peto,  Chichen, 
in  the  interior ;  and  at  Tuloom,  Tancar,  and  in  the  Island  of  Cozu- 
mel  on  the  eastern  coast. 

The  simple  catalogue  of  these  names,  indicating  the  sites  of  an- 
cient civilization  in  the  midst  of  what  is  at  present  almost  an  unex- 
plored wilderness  and  covering  so  wide  a  field  of  observation,  will 
satisfy  the  reader  that  it  is  impossible  to  condense  a  satisfactory  re- 
view of  these  architectural  remains  within  the  space  that  we  are 
enabled  to  appropriate  to  antiquarian  researches.  The  ruins  of  Pa 
lenque  in  Chiapas,  and  of  Uxmal  and  Chichen  in  Yucatan,  are, 


PALENQUE UXMAL YUCATAN  CALENDAR.       173 

perhaps,  the  most  wonderful  of  all  that  have  been  explored  hitherto 
in  this  lonely  region;  and,  while  we  regret  that  our  duty  to  the 
living  present  will  not  permit  us  to  dwell  longer  on  the  curious  past, 
we  shall,  nevertheless  pause,  occasionally,  as  we  pass  through  the 
Mexican  States,  to  notice  those  remains  which  have  either  been 
visited  by  us  personally,  or  are  not  described  in  books  as  accessible 
to  all  classes  of  enquirers  and  students  as  those  of  Messrs.  Stephens, 
Catherwood  and  Norman.  Mr.  Stephens  believes,  after  full  inves- 
tigation, that  these  towns  and  cities  were  occupied  by  the  original 
builders  and  their  descendants  at  the  period  of  the  Spanish  con- 
quest, and  our  o\\ti  opinion  entirely  coincides  with  his  reasoning 
and  judgment.  Those  who  desire  a  complete  and  conclusive  illus- 
tration of  this  branch  of  the  subject  will  find  an  excellent  argument 
thereon  in  both  of  his  publications.  ^ 

In  the  first  volume  of  this  work  we  have  given  an  account  of  the 
Mexican  or  Aztec  Calendar ;  and  the  proximate  identity  of  the  Yu- 
catese  or  Mayan  and  Aztec  Calendar  led  Mr.  Stephens  to  the  con- 
clusion that  both  nations  had  a  common  origin.  This  argument  is 
also  important  in  considering  the  period  of  the  occupation  of  the 
Chiapan  and  Yucatese  edifices,  inasmuch  as  we  know  that  the  Az- 
tecs of  Montezuma's  period  used  the  Calendar  which  we  have 
already  illustrated  and  described. 

Yucatan  Calendar. 

"Our  knowledge  of  the  Yucatan  Calendar,"  says  Mr.  Gallatin, ^ 
"is  derived  exclusively  from  the  communications  made  by  Don  J.  P. 
Perez  to  Mr.  John  L.  Stephens,  and  inserted  in  the  appendix  to  the 
first  volume  of  this  gentleman's  Travels  in  Yucatan.  It  is  substan- 
tially the  same  with  that  of  the  Mexicans,  though  differing  in  some 
important  particulars. 

"The  inhabitants  of  Yucatan  had^  like  the  Mexicans,  the  two 
distinct  modes  of  computing  time,  by  months  of  twenty  days,  and 
by  periods  of  thirteen  days.  They  also  distinguished  the  days  of 
the  year  by  a  combination  of  those  two  series,  precisely  similar  to 
that  of  the  Mexicans.  And  their  year  likewise  consisted  of  365 
days,  viz.,  of  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days  each,  to  which  they 
added  five  supplementary  days ;  and  also  of  a  corresponding  series 
of  twenty-eight  periods  of  thirteen  days  each,  and  one  day  over. 

1  See  Stephens's  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Central  America,  Chiapas  and  Yucatan, 
vol.  2,  chapter  xxvi ;  and  his  Incidents  of  Travel  in  Yucatan,  vol.  2,  page  444. 

2  Transactions  American  Ethnological  Society,  vol.  1,  page  104,  and  Stephens's 
Yucatan,  vol.  1,  page  434. 


174  YUCATESE,  CHIAPAN,  MECHOACAN,  NICARAGUA  AND 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  the  twenty  days  of  the 
Yucatan  month,  with  their  signification,  as  far  as  it  has  been  ascer- 
tained by  Don  J.  P.  Perez ;  and  also  the  days  of  the  Chiapa  month 
as  given  by  Boturini ;  and  which,  from  the  similarity  of  the  names 
of  several  of  the  days,  appears  to  have  been  in  its  origin  nearly 
identical  with  that  of  Yucatan. 


Yucatan. 

Chiapa. 

Mechoacan 

Nicaragua. 

Mexican. 

1  KAN 

yellow 

Ghanan 

Inodon 

9  Cipat 

Cipactli 

2  Chicchan 

small 

Abagh 

Inic  Ebi 

10  Acat 

Ehecatl 

3  Q.uimi 

death 

Tox 

Inettuni 

11  Cali 

Calli 

4  Manik 

wind  ceasing 

Moxic 

Inbeari 

12  duespalcoat 

Cuetzpalin 

5  Lamat 

Lambat 

Inethaati 

13  Migiste 

Cohuatl 

6  MuLUC 

union? 

Mulu 

Inbani 

14  Macat 

Miquiztli 

7  Oc 

palm  of  hand? 
board 

Elab 

Inxichari 

15  Toste 

Mazatl 

8  Chuen 

Batz 

Incliini 

16  At 

Tochtli 

9  Eb 

ladder 

Enob 

In  Rini 

17  Izquindi 

Atl 

10  Be-en 

Be-en 

In  Pari 

18  Ocomat 

Itzcuintli 

11  HIX 

rough 

Hix 

Inchon 

19  Malinal 

Ozomatli 

12  Men 

a  mechanic 

Tziauin 
Chabin 

Inthahui 

20  Acato 

Malinalli 

13  auib 

wax 

Intzini 

1  Agat 

Acatl 

14  Caban 

Chic 

In  Tzoniabi 

2  Ocelot 

Ocelotl 

15  Eznab 

Chinax 

In  Tizimbi 

3  Oat 

Q,uauhtli 

16  Ca-uac 

Cahogh 

Inthihui 

4  Cozgacoatz 

Cozcaquauhtli 

17  Ajau 

period  of  years 

Aghual 

Inixotzini 

5  Olin 

Ollin 

18  Imix 

meiize? 

Mox 

Inichini 

6  Topecat 

Tecpatl 

19  Yk 

wind 

Ygh 

Ini  Abi 

7  duiauvit 

duiahuitl 

20  Akbal 

VOTAN 

Intaniri 

8  Sochit 

Xochitl 

"The  Calendar  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  independent  kingdom  of 
Mechoacan,  who  spoke  the  Tarasca  language,  appears  to  have  been 
similar  to  that  of  the  Mexicans ;  and  the  names  of  the  days  of  their 
month  as  stated  by  Veytia,  are  inserted  in  the  table.  The  names 
of  the  days  of  an  ancient  Mexican,  or  rather  Toltec  tribe,  found  in 
the  province  of  Nicaragua,  have  also  been  inserted.  This,  as  far 
as  w^e  know,  is  the  extreme  southeastern  limit  of  the  Mexican  Ca- 
lendar on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  That  limit  on  the  Atlantic  or  Gulf  of 
Mexico  may  be  traced  as  far  as  the  islahds  opposite  Cape  Honduras 
(Herrera) ;  beyond  which  the  shores  are  still  inhabited  by  the  un- 
civilized Musquito  Indians. 

"The  cycle  of  fifty-tw^o  years  was  also  adopted  in  Yucatan,  and 
the  arrangement  of  the  years  was  precisely  the  same  as  in  that  of 
Mexico,  substituting  only  the  names  Khan,  Muluc,  Hix  and  Ca-uac, 
for  Tochtli,  Acatl,  Tecpatl  and  Calli,  as  appears  in  the  following 
table : 


MEXICAN  MONTHS YUCATESE  AND  CHIAPAN  CYCLE.         175 


YUCATAN  CYCLE  OF  52  YEARS. 

1st  year. 

14th  year. 

27th  year.    40th  year. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

Khaji 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khan 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Kahn 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Kahn 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khan 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khan 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khan 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khan 

Muluo 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khaji 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khan 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khan 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khan 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

Khan 

Muluc 

Hix 

Ca-uac 

1 
The  Chiapan  Cycle  is  also 

similar,  substituting  for  the 

names  Khan,  Muluc,  Hix, 

Ca-uac,    those    of    Votan, 

Lembat,  Be-en,  Chinax. 

i 

i 

"But  there  was  an  essential  difference  respecting  the  series  of 
the  names  and  numerical  characters  of  the  days,  as  will  appear  by 
the  following  table,  which  shows  the  termination  of  the  first  year  of 
the  cycle,  and  the  beginning  of  the  next  ensuing  years. 


Year  1  Khan 
1st  of  the  Cycle 


Year  2  Muluc 
2d  of  the  Cycle 

Year  3  Hix 
3d  of  the  Cycle 

Year  4  Ca-uac 
4th  of  the  Cycle 

Year  5  Khan 
5th  of  the  Cycle 


1st  day  of  the  year 
1st  supplementary  day 
2d  do. 

3d  do. 

4th  do. 

5th  do. 

1st  day  of  the  year 
1st  supplementary  day 
Last  do. 

1st  day  of  the  year 
1st  supplementary  day 
Last  do. 

1st  day  of  the  year 
1st  supplementary  day 
Last  do. 

1st  day  of  the  year 
1st  supplementary  day 
Last  do. 


1  Khan 

10  do. 

11  Chiccan 

12  Kimi 

13  Manic 

1  Lamat 

2  Muluc 

11  Muluc 

2  Be-en 

3  Hix 

12  do. 

3  Edznab 

4  Ca-uac 

13  do. 

4  Akbal 

5  Khan 
1     do. 

5  Lamat 


*'Don  J.  P.  Perez  positively  states,  that  the  fundamental  rule  is 
never  to  interrupt  either  of  the  series  of  names  or  of  days.  Thus, 
inasmuch  as  the  last  supplementary  day  of  the  first  year  of  the  cycle 
(1  Khan)  is  1  Lamat;  and  as,  in  the  order  of  the  days  of  the  month. 


176      YUCATESE  AND  MEXICAN  SOLAR  YEAR DIFFERENCES. 

the  day  called  "Muluc"  immediately  follows  the  day  Lamat;  the 
ensuing  year  2  Muluc  commences  Avith  the  day  2  Muluc,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  year  1  Khan  commences  with  the  day  1  Khan. 
It  is  the  same  with  the  other  years ;  so  that  the  first  day  of  every 
year  has  the  same  name  and  numerical  character  as  the  year  itself. 

"Don  J.  P.  Perez  acknowledges  that  amongst  the  few  mutilated 
remains  of  Indian  manuscripts  or  paintings,  he  has  not  been  able  to 
discover  any  trace  of  an  intercalation,  either  of  one  day  every  four 
years,  or  of  thirteen  days  at  the  end  of  the  cycle,  though  he  pre- 
sumes that  they  had  indubitably  either  the  one  or  the  other. 

"The  Yucatan  cycle  of  fifty-two  years,  diflfered  in  no  other  re- 
spect from  that  of  the  Mexicans.  The  combination  of  the  two  series 
of  twenty  and  thirteen  days  is  used  in  the  same  manner  in  both 
calendars  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  the  days  of  the  year. 

"The  Yucatecs  differed  materially  from  the  Mexicans  with  regard 
to  the  time  of  the  solar  year,  when  their  year  began.  Don  J,  P. 
Perez  informs  us,  that  the  first  day  of  the  Yucatan  year  correspond- 
ed with  the  sixteenth  day  of  July ;  and  that  this  was  the  day  of  the 
transit  of  the  sun  by  the  zenith  of  a  place  which  he  does  not  men- 
tion. But  he  adds  that,  for  want  of  proper  instruments,  the  Indians 
had  made  a  mistake  of  forty-eight  hours.  In  point  of  fact,  it  is  in 
the  latitude  of  about  twenty-one  degrees  and  a  half  that  the  transit 
of  the  sun  by  the  zenith  occurs  on  the  16th  of  July;  and  Yucatan 
lies  between  the  latitudes  of  about  eighteen  degrees  and  a  half  and 
twenty-one  degrees  and  a  half.  To  commence  the  year  on  the  day 
of  the  transit  of  the  sun  by  the  zenith,  is  attended  with  the  great 
inconvenience,  that  this  commencement  must  vary  from  place  to 
place,  according  to  their  respective  latitudes.  As  Don  J.  Pio  Perez 
counts  every  year  as  having  365  days,  and  without  regard  to  the 
omitted  bissextile  days,  it  is  clear  that  the  day  in  the  Yucatan  ca- 
lendar, on  which  the  transit  of  the  sun  by  the  zenith  of  any  one 
place  occurs,  would  vary  twenty  days,  or  a  whole  Indian  month,  in 
the  course  of  eighty  years.  This  would  create  such  confusion  that, 
if  it  be  a  well  ascertained  fact,  that  the  Yucatan  year  began  on  the 
zenith  day,  this  renders  it  highly  probable  that  the  calendar  was, 
like  that  of  the  Mexicans,  corrected  by  an  intercalation  of  thirteen 
days  at  the  end  of  the  cycle. 

"The  names  of  the  eighteen  months  of  the  Yucatecos,  together 
with  such  interpretations  as  Don  Pio  Perez  has  given  us,  their  order 
and  their  correspondence  with  our  year,  new  style,  appear  in  the 
following  table: 


YUCATESE    MONTHS. 


177 


lABLE   OF  YUCATESE   MONTHS. 


begins  on  16th  July,  N.  S. 
"  5  August 

25      " 
"  14  September 

"  4  October 

24       " 
"  13  November 

"  3  December 

23 
"  12  January 

"  1  February 

21 
"  13  March 

"  2  April 

22      " 
"  12  May 

"  1  June 

21     " 
the  5  supplementary  days  ) 
from  nth  to  15th  July     J 


"The  Mexicans  counted  only  by  cycles;  they  designated  the  ter-r 
mination  of  a  cycle  by  a  hi^eroglyphic  representing  a  bundle  of  reeds 
tied  up;  and  they  sometimes  designated,  by  an  equal  number  of 
small  circles,  the  number  of  cycles  which  had  elapsed,  since  the  be- 
ginning of  their  era  corresponding  with  the  year  1091.  But  the 
Yucatecos,  besides  their  cycle  of  52  years,  had  another,  containing 
thirteen  periods  of  twenty  or  twenty-four  years  each.  These  last 
mentioned  periods  were  called  Ajau  or  Ahau.^'' 


1  Pop,  Poop 
2Uo 

Mat  of  Reeds 
Frog 

3  Zip 

Tree 

4  Zodz 

Bat 

5  Zee 

6Xul 

End 

7  Dzeyaxkin 
8Mol 

Summer 
To  unite 

9  Chen 

A  WeU 

10  Yax 

First 

11  Zac 

White 

12  Quej 

13  Mac 

Deer 
Lid,  cover 

14  Kankin 

Yellow  Sun 

15  Moan 

16  Pax 

Musical  instrument 

17  Kayab 

18  Cumku 

Song 
Noise 

(    Uayebhaab 
I   Xma  kaba  kit 

Bed  of  year 

Days  without  name 

w 


YUCATESE    IDOL 


TABASCO BOUNDARIES RIVERS LAGUNE.  181 


THE    STATE    OF    TABASCO. 

This  State,  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  confederacy,  was,  previous 
to  the  revolution,  a  province  of  the  Intendency  of  Vera  Cruz.  It 
bounds  eastwardly  on  the  State  of  Yucatan;  south  on  Chiapas  and 
Oajaca;  west  on  Vera  Cruz,  and  northwardly  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Nearly  the  whole  of  Tabasco  slopes  gradually  towards  the  sea,  and  is 
so  extremely  flat  that  it  is  often  subject  to  inundations,  and  the  com- 
munication from  village  to  village  and  parish  to  parish  cut  off  alto- 
gether, or  only  practicable  in  canoes.  The  State  is  consequently 
full  of  streams,  though  they  are  generally  short  and  shallow,  whilst 
their  mouths  are  obstructed  by  bars  and  flats.  The  most  remark 
able  of  these  streams  are — the  Pacaitun,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
Rio  de  Banderas ;  the  Usumasinta  which  also  passes  through  Chia- 
pas; the  Tabasco;  the  Chiltepec;  Dos  Bocas ;  Capilco ;  Rio  de 
Santa  Anna  ;  Tonala  or  Toneladas  ;  Tancochapa  or  San  Antonio  ; 
Uspanapan  and  the  Guachapa  or  Rio  del  Paso. 

On  the  eastern  boundary  of  Tabasco  lies  the  Laguna  de  Terminos, 
which  is  fifteen  leas^ues  lonsf  and  ten  broad.  In  this  inland  sea  are 
locked  the  beautiful  islands  of  Laguna,  Carmen,  and  Puerto  Real ; 
and,  in  the  two  passes  by  which  the  sea  is  reached  from  this  lagune, 
twelve  to  thirteen  feet  of  water  are  found  in  the  larger,  while  but  five 
and  a  half  feetare  obtained  in  thesmallcr,  or  pass  of  Puerto  Real. 

The  climate  of  this  State  is  excessively  hot  along  the  immediate 
coast  of  the  gulf;  nor  is  it  very  sensibly  changed  as  the  interior  is 
reached,  in  consequence  of  the  extreme  flatness  of  the  soil.  During 
the  prevalence  of  the  northers  the  harbors  are  exceedingly  insecure; 
but  these  violent  storms  somewhat  temper  the  heat  and  render  the 
towns  less  sickly. 

Tabasco  is  divided  into  three  departments  with  nine  parishes: 
1st.  The  Department  of  Villa  Hermosa  with  the  districts  of  Villa 
Hermosa,  Usumasinta,  and  Nacayuca.  2d.  The  Department  of  the 
Sierra  with  the  districts  of  Teapa,  Tacotalpa  and  Jalapa.  3d.  The 
Department  of  Chontalpa  with  the  districts  of  Macuspana,  Cundua- 
can  and  Jalpa. 

These  are  subdivided  into  49  parishes;  (23  of  which  are  in  the 
Department  of  Villa  Hermosa,  10  in  la  Sierra,  and  16  in  Chontalpa;) 
besides  these  there  are  543  haciendas  and  ranchos,  or  estates  and 
farms;  and,  throughout  the  whole  State  there  are  63  churches. 
The  mass  of  inhabitants  in  Tabasco,  as  elsewhere  in  these  southern 


182       INHABITANTS PRODUCTIONS TOWNS  AND  VILLAGES. 

states,  is  formed  of  Indians :  and  of  the  70,000  people  who  are  esti- 
mated to  compose  the  population,  it  is  probable  that  the  majority  is 
formed  of  the  Mijes,  Zoques  and  Cendales. 

Cacao,  coffee,  pepper,  sugar,  tamarinds,  arrow-root,  palmetto  and 
some  tobacco  are  cultivated ;  while  indigo  and  vainilla  grow  wild 
in  the  forests  among  groves  of  oaks,  cedars,  mahogany  and  iron- 
wood.  The  extensive  wildernesses  of  Tabasco  are  filled  with  game 
and  wild  beasts,  and  the  streams  are  full  of  excellent  fish.  Bees 
abound  in  the  depths  of  the  forests  and  yield  abundant  supplies  of 
wild  honey  and  wax. 

The  capital  of  Tabasco  is  Villa  Hermosa  de  Tabasco,  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called.  Villa  de  San  Juan  Bautista,  which  lies  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Tabasco  river  twenty-four  leagues  from  its  mouth.  It 
contains  about  7,000  inhabitants,  and  is  reached  by  vessels  of  light 
draft  from  the  sea ;  but  its  chief  commercial  intercourse  is  carried  on 
with  adjoining  states  and  with  Guatemala.  There  are  some  other 
towns  or  villages  worthy  of  mention;  the  principal  of  which  are 
Usumasinta,  Nacayuca,  Tacotalpa,  Teapa,  Jalapa,  Chontalpa,  Jalpa, 
Cunduacan,  Macuspana,  Chiltepec,  Santa  Anna,  Tonala,  Acalpa, 
Chinameca,  Tochla,  Istapa  or  Ystapangahoya,  San  Fernando,  Ta- 
pichulapa,  and  Obsolotan. 


CHAPTER    II. 


BOUNDARIES     OF    VERA    CRUZ RIVERS,    LAGUNES,    MINERAL    SPRINGS, 

POPULATION,  POLITICAL  DIVISIONS,  PRODUCTIONS,  CATTLE,  CITIES, 
TOWNS. VERA  CRUZ ITS  DISEASES METEOROLOGICAL  OBSER- 
VATIONS AT WATER  FALLEN  AT  VERA  CRUZ. ORIZABA ASCENT 

OF     THE     MOUNTAIN MAGNIFICENT     VIEWS DIFFICULTIES THE 

CRATER     EXTINCT ELEVATION    OF    THE    MOUNTAIN DESCENT. 

ANTIQUITIES  IN  THE   STATE  OF  VERA  CRUZ RUINS  AT  PANUCO,  CHA- 

CUACO,   SAN    NICOLAS,   LA    TRINIDAD SMALL    FIGURES. PAPANTLA 

DESCRIPTION  OF    THE    PYRAMID. RUINS  AT  MAPILCA PYRAMID 

AND  TEMPLE  AT  TUSAPAN ISLE  OF  SACRIFICIOS MISANTLA RE- 
MAINS NEAR  PUENTE  NACIONAL. TAJMAULIPAS BOUNDARIES,  RIV- 
ERS, LAGUNES,  CLIMATE,  POPULATION,  PRODUCTIONS,  TOWNS. AN- 
TIQUITIES   OF    TAMAULIPAS TOPILA RANCHO    DE    LAS    PIEDRAS 

SCULPTURE REMAINS,   ETC.,   ETC. 


THE    STATE    OF    VERA    CRUZ 


PLAZA    OF    VERA    CRUZ. 


The  State  of  Vera  Cruz  lies  under  the  burning  sky  of  the  tropics 
between  17°  85'  and  22°  17'  of  north  latitude;  and  96°  46'  and 
101°  21'  west  longitude  from  Paris.  It  is  comprised  within  a  long 
but  somewhat  narrow  strip  of  territory  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
running  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tampico  river,  in  the  north,  to  the 


184      RIVERS LAGUNES MINERAL  SPRINGS POPULATION. 

Guasacualco  and  the  boundaries  of  Tabasco,  on  the  south.  Its 
length  is  166  leagues;  its  breadth,  from  25  to  28;  and  it  is  estima- 
ted to  contain  an  area  of  5,000  square  leagues.  It  is  bounded  east- 
wardly  by  the  Gulf;  south  by  Tabasco;  north  by  Tamauhpas;  and 
west  and  south-west  by  Oajaca,  Puebla,  Mexico,  Queretaro  and  San 
Luis  Potosi.  The  eastern  part  of  the  State  is  generally  level,  low 
and  sandy;  but,  further  inland,  it  gradually  rises  as  the  traveller  leaves 
the  arid  and  burning  wastes  of  the  coast,  until  the  country  is  broken 
into  an  uninterrupted  series  of  lofty  mountains  and  beautiful  vallies. 

The  coasts  of  this  State  are  rich  in  rivers,  streams,  inlets,  and 
lagunes ;  but,  unfortunately,  they  are  either  not  navigable  for  any 
considerable  distance,  or  are  obstructed  by  bars  at  their  mouths. 
Among  these  streams  the  following  are  chiefly  to  be  noticed  as  of 
importance:  The  Rio  Tampico,  the  Garzes,  the  Tuspan,  the  Ca- 
zones,  the  Tenistepec,  the  Jajalapam  ,or  Tecolutla,  the  Nautla,  the 
Palmar,  the  Misantla,  the  Maguilraanapa,  the  Yeguascalco,  the  Ac- 
topan,  the  Chuchalaca,  the  Antigua,  the  Jaraapa,  the  Rio  Blanco, 
the  San  Juan  or  Alvarado,  the  Aquivilco,  and  the  Guasacualco 
which  is  a  boundary  stream  between  the  States  of  Vera  Cruz,  Oajaca 
and  Tabasco. 

The  principal  lagunes  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz  are: — The  La- 
guna  de  Tamiahua,  the  largest  on  this  coast  of  Mexico,  being  ten 
leagues  long  and  eight  leagues  broad.  It  has  two  mouths  in  the 
Gulf;  —  one  at  the  bar  of  Tamiahua,  and  the  other,  further  south 
near  the  mouth  of  the  small  stream  of  Tuspan.  Between  these 
mouths  lies  the  island  of  Tuspan;  while  the  two  islands  of  Juan 
Ramirez  and  El  Toro  are  found  in  the  lake  or  lagune  itself.  The 
next  lagune  in  importance  is  that  of  Tampico,  four  leagues  long  and 
three  broad  ;  and  besides  this,  there  are — the  Lagunas  de  Mandin- 
go,  of  Alvarado,  (which  is  subdivided  into  eight  smaller  lagunes,) 
of  Catemaico,  Alijoyuca,  and  Tenango. 

There  are  several  mineral  springs  in  this  State,  and  at  Atotonilco, 
near  Calcahualco,  in  the  district  of  Cordova,  there  are  warm  baths 
which  are  celebrated  for  their  efficacy  in  nervous  and  rheumatic  dis- 
eases. There  are  mineral  waters  also  near  the  hacienda  of  Alma- 
gros,  in  the  district  of  Acayucam,  and  other  warm  springs  near 
Alot^ngo  in  the  district  of  Jalanzingo,  whose  qualities  have  not  yet 
been  ascertained  by  chemical  analysis. 

The  population  has  been  estimated  by  recent  writers  at  near 
251,000  ;  which  distributed  over  the  5,000  square  leagues  will  give 
about  50  inhabitants  to  the  square  league.  According  to  our  esti- 
mate in  the  chapter  on  population,  the  number  may  be  set  down  at 


aitoiaii'iii  I  I    .  iwiiuLLL  m/L^m^  s& 


POLITICAL    DIVISIONS PRODUCTIONS.  185 

270,000.  The  milder  regions  about  Jalapa  and  Orizaba  are  more 
thickly  peopled,  than  the  comparatively  sterile  and  sickly  shores  of 
the  gulf.  The  population  is  composed  of  mixed  races  :  —  Creoles, 
Indians,  Havanese,  Foreigners,  and  a  few  Negroes. 

The  State  of  Vera  Cruz  is  divided  into  four  Departments  and 
twelve  districts,  with  103  municipalities  and  1,370  village  juris- 
dictions. 

1st.  The  Department  of  Jalapa,  with  two  districts  or  cantons, 
viz:  —  1st,  Jalapa,  including  the  capital  of  that  name, — thirty-one 
villages,  fourteen  haciendas  and  sixteen  ranches;  —  and  2d,  Jalan- 
zingo,  with  the  towns  of  Perote  and  Jalanzingo,  five  villages,  seven 
haciendas  and  thirty-three  ranchos. 

2d.  The  Department  of  Orizaba,  with  three  districts  or  cantons  : 
1st,  Orizaba,  including  the  city  of  that  name,  —  Sougolican,  twen- 
ty-seven villages,  six  haciendas  and  fifty  ranchos.  2d,  Cordova, 
including  the  city  of  that  name,  and  the  towns  of  Coscomalepec  and 
San  Antonio  Huatusco, — twenty  villages,  twenty-eight  haciendas 
237  ranchos,  —  and  3d,  Cosamaloapan,  with  eight  villages,  five  ha- 
ciendas and  forty-one  ranchos. 

3d.  The  Department  of  Vera  Cruz  with  four  districts  or  cantons : 
1st,  Vera  Cruz,  including  the  capital  of  that  name,  with  Alvarado 
and  Medellin,  21  haciendas,  149  estancias,  and  600  ranchos. 
2d,  Misantla,  with  four  villages,  two  haciendas,  and  thirty-four 
ranchos.  3d,  Papantla,  with  thirteen  villages,  seven  ranchos  and 
the  hacienda  de  Norias.  4th,  Tampico,  with  Tampico  and  Pa- 
nuco,  —  seven  villages,  thirty-nine  haciendas  and  forty-one  ranchos. 
4th.  The  Department  of  Acayucam,  with  three  districts  or  can- 
tons : — 1st,  Acayucam,  with  the  adjacent  Acayucam  and  San  Juan 
Oluta,  nineteen  villages,  twelve  haciendas,  twenty-seven  hatos  and 
eleven  ranchos.  2d,  Huimanguillo,  with  twenty-one  villages,  one 
hacienda  and  nineteen  ranchos.  3d,  San  Andres  Tuxtla,  with  the 
adjacent  San  Andres  and  Santiago  Tuxtla,  —  two  villages,  one  ha- 
cienda, thirty-four  hatos,  and  eight  ranchos. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  description  of  this  rich  and  varied  State  to 
sum  up  with  accuracy  what  it  produces  either  naturally  or  by  in- 
troduction from  abroad,  for  its  genial  climate,  changed  by  the  ele- 
vation of  the  interior  portions  of  the  State,  renders  it  capable  of 
yielding  the  fruits,  the  flowers,  the  grains,  the  woods,  the  vegeta- 
bles and  the  animals  of  the  temperate  as  well  as  of  the  torrid  zone. 
Tobacco,  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  corn,  barley,  wheat,  jalap,  sarsapa- 
riUa,  vainilla,  mameis,  papayas,  pine-apples,  oranges,  citrons, 
lemons,  pomegranates,  zapotes,   bananas,  chirimogas,   aguacates, 

X 


186  CATTLE CITIES,    TOWNS VERA    CRUZ. 

tunas,  pears,  watermelons,  peaches,  apricots,  gnyavas,  grapes : 
mahogony,  ebony,  cedar,  oak,  dragon-blood,  tamarinds,  palms, 
dyewoods,  and  a  thousand  other  plants,  trees,  shrubs,  cereals  and 
parasites,  spring  almost  spontaneously  from  the  soil,  and  render  the 
necessary  labor  of  man  almost  insignificant.  After  the  strip  of  sandy 
sea-shore  has  been  passed,  and  the  country  begins  gradually  to  rise, 
health  and  rich  vegetation  follow  the  traveller's  footsteps.  He  be- 
holds on  every  side  magnificent  forests  filled  with  majestic  trees 
and  illuminated  by  the  splendid  colors  of  flowers  and  buds.  In  the 
midst  of  these  solitary  folds  among  the  mountains,  farms  and  plan- 
tations are  opened,  which  gleam  with  the  freshest  verdure  of  cane 
or  corn ;  while  over  the  levels,  innumerable  herds  of  cattle  are  fed 
from  the  mere  fulness  of  the  land,  and  without  the  necessary  tend- 
ing either  of  shepherds  or  vaqueros.  An  idea  of  this  State's  rich- 
ness in  cattle  may  be  formed  from  the  following  account  of  the 
number  it  possessed  in  1831,  —  the  district  of  Jalapa  being  ex- 
cluded from  the  list,  inasmuch  as  there  were  no  returns  for  that 
year : — 

291,055 neat  cattle, 

49,321         ....  horses, 

9,396     .....     mules, 
3,110         ....  asses, 

17,680 goats, 

35,325         ....  sheep; 

the  total  value  of  which,  together  wdth  the  cattle  product  of  the 
canton  of  Jalapa,  cannot  be  less  than  $2,000,000. 

The  principal  cities,  towns  and  villages  of  the  State  of  Vera 
Cruz,  are  1st,  La  Villa  riea  or  La  Villa  Heroica  de  la  Vera  Cruz — 
the  capital  of  the  State;  2d,  Tampico  or  Pueblo  viejo  de  Tampico; 
3d,  Panuco;  4th,  Tuspan;  5th,  Misantla;  6th,  Papantla.  [On  the 
road  fi-om  the  port  of  Vera  Cruz  to  the  western  limit  of  the  State, 
lie  Paso  de  Ovejas,  Puente  del  Rey  or  Puente  Nacional,  Plan  del 
Rio,  and  El  Encero,  but  these  are  small  towns  or  villages  of  no  great 
consideration.]  7th,  Alvarado;  8th,  Boca  del  Rio;  9th,  Tlacotal- 
pan;  10th,  Cotastla ;  11th,  Talascoyan;  12th,  San  Martin  Acayu- 
cam ;  13th,  San  Andres  Tuxtla ;  14th,  Santiago  Tuxtla ;  15th, 
Soconusco ;  16th,  Jaltipan ;  17th,  Chinameca ;  18th,  Orizaba ; 
19th,  Cordova ;  20th,  Cosamaloapam  ;  21st,  Aculzingo  ;  22d,  Ja- 
lapa ;  23d,  Jalanzingo,  and  24th,  Perote. 

The  port  of  Vera  Cruz  lies  in  19°  11'  52"  north  latitude,  and 
98°  29'  19"  west  longitude,  from  Paris,  on  a  sandy  plain,  —  inter- 


ITS  DISEASES METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS  AT.   187 

spersed  with  marshes,  —  which  bound  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its 
unhealthiness  is  proverbial.  From  the  month  of  May  to  that  of 
November,  —  comprising  the  usual  period  during  which  the  north- 
ers cease  blowing, — the  vomito  prieto,  or  black  vomit,  prevails 
incessantly  at  Vera  Cruz.  None  but  natives  of  the  town,  or  accli- 
mated foreigners,  are  free  from  its  attacks,  and  the  frightful  inroads 
it  made  among  our  troops,  in  the  year  1847,  will  long  be  remem- 
bered in  the  history  of  our  army  and  country.  Time  does  not  appear 
to  have  had  any  effect  on  this  dreadful  disease.  Increase  of  popu- 
lation and  sanatory  precautions  do  not  seem  to  abate  its  malignity  ; 
and  the  science  of  the  ablest  physicians  is  entirely  at  fault  in  deal- 
ing with  it.  Diarrhcea,  dysentery  and  vomito  are  the  most  fatal 
and  prevalent  maladies  at  Vera  Cruz ;  and,  the  latter  disease,  is 
reckoned  to  cause  one-sixth  of  the  whole  mortality  of  the  port. 


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188  WATER    FALLEN    AT    VERA    CRUZ ORIZABA. 

Table  showing  the  fall  of  water  at  Vera  Cruz  in  the  years  from 
1822  to  1830,  both  inclusive  : 


Years. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Tenths. 

1822 

13 

1 

5 

1823 

15 

8 

9 

1824 

10 

7 

1 

1825 

20 

6 

4 

18261 

5 

4 

4 

1827  2 

21 

2 

8 

1828 

12 

2 

0 

1829 

23 

2 

3 

1830 

17 

1 

4 

The  majestic  mountain  of  Orizaba,  or  Citlaltepetl,  the  "  Moun- 
tain of  the  Star,"  is  found  within  the  limits  of  the  State  of  Vera 
Cruz,  and  as  it  is  somewhat  renowned  in  all  geographical  descrip- 
tions of  this  continent,  we  shall  insert  the  first  authentic  account  of 
its  ascent  we  have  ever  seen,  which  was  prepared  by  Lieutenant 
W.  F.  Reynolds,  of  the  United  States  Topographical  Engineers, 
who,  with  some  friends,  reached  the  lofty  peak  whilst  serving  with 
our  army  in  Mexico. 

"  The  Peak  of  Orizaba,"  says  he,  "  though  situated  nearly  a 
hundred  miles  in  the  interior,  is  the  first  land  beheld  on  approaching 
Vera  Cruz  from  the  gulf.  Being  visible  nearly  fifty  miles  at  sea,  it 
is  the  most  important  land  mark  to  the  sailor  in  these  regions. 
While  the  command  under  General  Bankhead,  which  was  the  first 
to  march  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  city  of  Orizaba,  was  '  en  route,' 
in  February,  1848,  the  mountain  being  constantly  in  view,  a  trip  to 
its  summit  was  frequently  discussed ;  and  after  our  arrival  at  that 
place,  the  marvellous  stories  told  by  the  inhabitants  only  increased 
our  desire  to  make  the  attempt.  All  agreed  that  the  summit  had 
never  been  reached,  though  several  knew  or  heard  of  its  being 
attempted.  The  difficulties  to  be  encountered  were  represented  as 
being  perfectly  insurmountable ;  craggy  precipices  were  to  be 
climbed ;  gullies,  two  thousand  feet  deep,  it  was  said,  were  to  be 
crossed  ;  inclined  planes  of  smooth  ice  were  to  be  ascended ;  to  say 
nothing  of  avalanches,  under  which,  we  were  assured,  all  the  rash 
party  who  made  the  daring  attempt  would  surely  find  a  grave. 
These  extraordinary  stories  produced  quite  a  different  effect  from 
the  one  anticipated,  and  the  question  was  not  who  would  go,  but 

'  This  year  was  remarkable  for  its  dryness  and  the  loss  of  cattle  on  the  coasts  in 
consequence. 
*  In  this  year  the  observations  include  only  ten  months. 


ASCENT  OF  THE  MOUNTAIN.  189 

who  would  stay  home.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  latter  part  of 
April  that  the  weather  was  thought  favorable,  and  securing,  for  the 
proposed  expedition,  the  sanction  of  the  commanding  officer,  we 
made  our  preparations  for  overcoming  all  obstacles.  Accordingly, 
long  poles  were  prepared,  shod  with  iron  sockets  at  one  end  and 
hooks  at  the  other,  to  assist  in  scaling  precipices  ;  ropes  with  iron 
grapnels  were  to  be  thrown  over  a  projecting  crag  or  icy  point ; 
rope  ladders  were  made  to  be  used  if  required ;  shoes  and  sandals 
with  sharp  projecting  points  to  assist  in  climbing  the  icy  slopes, 
were  also  bespoken ;  —  in  short,  everything  that  was  thought  might 
be  needed  or  would  increase  the  chances  of  success,  was  taken 
along.  The  selection  of  a  route  presented  some  difficulty,  different 
ones  being  recommended — those  by  San  Andres  and  San  Juan  de 
Coscomatepec  particularly.  In  order  to  decide  between  them,  we 
endeavored  to  persuade  some  of  the  intelligent  citizens  who  were 
acquainted  with  the  country,  to  go  with  us.  At  first  they  con- 
sented, but  as  the  time  approached  one  after  another  declined,  till 
finally,  when  the  party  assembled  for  starting,  it  was  found  we  were 
to  go  alone.  Then,  as  some  inclined  to  one  route  and  others  to 
another,  we  concluded  to  reject  all  their  recommendations,  and  go 
direct  to  the  mountain,  following  the  path  taken  by  the  Indians 
engaged  in  bringing  down  snow  to  the  city,  as  far  as  the  limits  of 
vegetation,  and  from  that  point  to  go  round  the  peak  to  the  side 
that  would  present  the  best  prospect  for  success. 

"  We  left  the  city  of  Orizaba  on  the  morning  of  the  7th  of  May, 
the  party  consisting  often  officers,  including  one  of  the  navy,  thirty- 
four  soldiers,  and  two  sailors  serving  with  the  naval  battery,  three 
or  four  Mexicans  and  Indians  as  guides,  and  enough  pack  mules  to 
carry  our  provisions  and  equipments.  Our  expedition  setting  out 
during  the  armistice,  it  was  thought  advisable  to  procure  a  passport 
from  the  prefect  of  Orizaba  to  provide  against  exigencies.  About 
six  miles  from  the  city  of  Orizaba  we  passed  through  the  small  Indian 
village  of  La  Perla ;  the  inhabitants  were  much  frightened  at  our 
approach,  but  our  passport  soon  quieted  them,  and  when  they  came 
to  know  the  object  of  our  visit,  they  seemed  to  regard  us  as  the 
greatest  set  of  donkeys  they  ever  saw,  telling  us  very  plainly  that  we 
could  never  reach  the  summit.  Nothing  daunted,  however,  we  con- 
tinued on,  and  immediately  after  leaving  the  village  commenced  a 
rapid  assent,  and  began  to  enjoy  views  which  in  themselves  would 
have  amply  repaid  us  for  our  trouble.  We  encamped  for  the  night 
at  an  elevation  of  7,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  the  night 
was  clear  and  bracing,  but  not  cold  enough  to  be  uncomfortable. 


190  MAGNIFICENT    VIEWS. 

The  next  morning  was  beautiful  and  clear,  and  after  an  early  break- 
fast, we  were  again  in  motion.  The  scenery  was  truly  sublime,  and 
ascending  one  mountain  after  another,  valley  after  valley  appeared 
in  view ;  hills  which  at  first  seemed  mountains,  seemed  gradually 
sinking  before  our  feet,  and  the  range  of  vision  constantly  extending, 
we  could  not  help  making  frequent  halts  to  admire  scenes  which 
cannot  be  surpassed,  and  which  at  every  successive  turn  broke  upon 
our  sight  with  redoubled  magnificence  and  grandeur.  We  were 
now  in  the  region  of  pines  and  northern  plants  ;  the  old  familiar 
oak,  the  birch,  and  trees  unknown  to  the  lower  countries,  were 
around  us ;  the  heavy  undergrowth  had  disappeared,  and  we  could 
almost  imagine  ourselves  in  our  '  dear  native  land.'  Cultivation 
does  not  extend  up  as  high  as  we  expected  to  see  it ;  we  passed  the 
upper  limit  about  8,000  feet  elevation.  About  12  o'clock,  and  at  an 
elevation  of  rather  more  than  10,000  feet,  the  guides  reported  that 
the  mules  could  go  no  farther,  and  not  knowing  anything  of  our 
route  beyond,  we  were  compelled  to  encamp  for  the  night.  A  bro- 
ther officer  and  myself,  however,  being  on  horse-back  and  feeling 
comparatively  fresh,  determined  to  go  forward  and  explore.  We 
concluded  that  it  would  not  do  to  stop  where  we  were,  but  the  mules 
with  light  loads  could  go  still  higher.  Accordingly,  next  morning 
we  again  started,  four  or  five  of  us  going  in  advance  to  select  a 
good  place  for  encampment,  and  also  to  explore  the  best  route  for 
the  final  ascent.  We  selected  our  camp  on  the  verge  of  vegetation, 
and  went  forward  by  routes  far  above  the  line  of  eternal  snow. 
Under  shelter  of  a  rock,  and  far  above  that  line,  some  of  the  party 
found  a  rude  cross,  decorated  with  paper  ornaments  and  surrounded 
by  tallow  candles.  Its  history  we  were  unable  to  learn,  but  it  gave 
rise  to  many  reflections.  Who  placed  it  there  ?  when  was  it  erected  .-* 
and  what  event  did  it  record  ?  w^ere  questions  asked,  but  not  an- 
swered. During  the  trip  several  parties  of  Indians  passed  us,  who 
make  a  regular  business  of  bringing  down  snow  on  their  backs  to 
the  citizens  of  Orizaba.  The  cross  was  probably  erected  by  some 
of  them.  On  our  return,  we  found  all  our  baggage  brought  up  to 
the  new  encampment,  notwithstanding  it  had  been  pronounced  im- 
possible, and  on  comparing  notes,  selected  the  route  which  seemed 
most  practicable,  and  prepared  for  the  ascent  in  the  morning.  The 
night  was  clear  and  cold,  the  thermometer  falling  below  the  freezing 
point ;  a  heavy  frost  and  frozen  w^ater  reminding  us  forcibly  of 
'  auld  lang  syne.'  Wliile  sitting  round  our  camp-fires  this  evening, 
it  was  discovered  that  there  were  two  flags  in  the  party  ;  the  sailors 
not  knowing  that  one  had  been  brought  along,  had  carried  materials 


ASCENT    OF    ORIZABA DIFFICULTIES.  191 

and  manufactured  one  in  the  camp.     It  was  proposed  to  get  up  a 
rivalry  as  to  which  flag  should  be  planted  first,  but  we  came  to  the 
conclusion  at  last,  that  should  the  summit  be  reached,  the  honor 
should  be  equally  shared.     As  night  came  on,  we  enjoyed  a  most 
magnificent  sight ;  the  clouds  gathered  round  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain so  as  to  entirely  obstruct  our  view,  while  the  distant  lightning 
flash,  darting  from  cloud  to  cloud,  was  visible  far  beneath  our  feet ; 
the  sky  overhead  being  bright  and  beautiful.     We  were  encamped 
at  an  elevation,  according  to  the  barometer,  of  12,000  feet,  about 
double  that  of  the  highest  peak  of  the  White  Mountains — while  the 
summit  still  raised  its  snow-white  head  above  us  to  a  height  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  Mount  Washington  above  the  sea,  and  seemed  to 
frown  upon  the  pigmies  who  dared  to  attempt  to  scale  its  giddy,  and, 
as  yet,  unascended  height.     At  daylight  on  the  morning  of  the  10th 
of  May,  we  were  again  in  motion  ;  many  of  the  party  had  already 
given  out,  so  that  there  were  but  twenty-four  persons  to  start  on  the 
final  journey.     In  a  few  minutes  we  were  at  the  foot  of  the  snow, 
and  taking  the  route  over  which  there  seemed  to  be  the  least  of  it, 
passed  for  half  or  three-fourths  of  a  mile  over  loose  volcanic  sand. 
On  measuring  the  slope  of  this,  I  found  it  to  be  33°.     It  was  by 
far  the  most  difficult  portion  of  our  ascent ; — sinking  up  to  our  knees 
in  sand,  we  seemed  to  go  back  about  as  far  as  we  stepped  forward, 
while  the  rarefied  condition  of  the  atmosphere  made  exertion  painful 
in  the  extreme ;  indeed,  during  the  whole  of  this  day's  ascent,  it 
was  impossible  to  advance   fifty  paces  without  stopping  to   take 
breath.     When  not  exerting  ourselves,  we  could  breathe  with  com- 
parative ease  ;  but  the  moment  we  moved,  we  were  reminded  of  our 
great  elevation.     I  can  only  compare  the  sensation  to  that  felt  by  a 
person  who,  after  running  at  the  top  of  his  speed,  is  ready  to  sink 
down  from  sheer  exhaustion. 

"  At  length,  however,  we  reached  firm  rock,  and  it  was  quite  a 
relief  to  be  able  once  more  to  climb  with  our  hands  and  feet.  But 
we  were  yet  far  from  the  point  at  which  we  were  aiming,  and  before 
reaching  it  were  to  be  many  times  sorely  disappointed.  A  project- 
ing crag,  far  above,  w^ould  be  hailed  as  the  summit ;  step  after  step 
the  weary  body  was  dragged  along,  until  at  length  it  was  reached ; 
but,  once  there,  it  was  found  to  be  but  the  base  of  another  still 
higher; — this,  too,  being  overcome,  another  was  discovered  above. 
Thus,  time  after  time,  were  our  expectations  crushed,  till  hope 
seemed  almost  to  have  forsaken  us,  and  one  after  another  dropped 
behind  in  despair.  But — '  advance  '  — was  our  motto,  and  onward 
we  pushed,  until  at  length  the  efforts  of  some  of  the  party  were 


192   THE  CRATER  EXTINCT ELEVATION  OF  THE  MOUNTAIN. 

crowned  with  success,  and  they  dropped  exhausted  on  the  brink  of 
the  crater. 

"  The  crater  is  nearly  circular  and  variously  estimated  by  different 
members  of  our  troop  at  from  400  to  650  yards  in  diameter.  We 
all  estimated  the  depth  at  300  feet.  The  sides  are  nearly  vertical, 
and  show  strong  and  unmistakeable  signs  of  fire,  looking  like  the 
mouth  of  a  gigantic  furnace. 

"  At  the  foot  of  this  perpendicular  wall  was  quite  a  bank  of  sand 
or  debris,  which  had  fallen  from  the  inner  surface  of  the  rock,  indi- 
cating the  great  length  of  time  since  the  volcano  had  been  extinct. 
Indeed  its  fires  were  perfectly  dead,  for  the  bottom  of  the  crater  was 
covered  with  snow.  Humboldt  says  its  most  violent  eruptions  were 
in  1545  and  1566,  —  nor  have  I  seen  a  record  of  an  eruption  since. 

"  As  I  desired  to  test  Humboldt's  altitude,  I  had  taken  the  pre- 
caution to  be  as  well  prepared  as  circumstances  would  admit,  and 
accordingly  had  carried  with  me  the  best  barometer  I  could  get, 
which,  from  previous  calculations,  I  deemed  capable  of  indicating  a 
height  of  from  300  to  400  feet  higher  than  that  given  by  him.  I 
had,  also,  provided  myself  with  a  spirit-lamp  and  thermometer,  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  the  temperature  of  boiling  water ;  but,  on  the 
march,  the  bottle  containing  the  alcohol  was  broken  and  the  spirit 
entirely  lost.  I  therefore  determined  to  test  the  combustible  quali- 
ties of  whiskey.  One  of  my  first  objects  after  reaching  the  summit 
was  to  make  observations ;  but,  on  preparing  the  barometer,  the 
mercury  sank  at  once  below  the  graduation. 

"  I  estimated  the  distance  between  the  lowest  line  of  graduation 
and  the  top  of  the  mercury  at  two-tenths  of  an  inch,  which  gives,  — 
with  corresponding  observations  in  the  city  of  Orizaba  at  the  same 
hour, — an  elevation  of  17,907  feet,  and  makes  it  the  highest  point  on 
the  North  American  Continent.  I  do  not  think  I  could  have  been  far 
wrong  in  my  estimate,  as  the  means  of  comparison  were  before  me ; 
but,  even  supposing  I  was  mistaken  one-twentieth  of  an  inch,  we  stiU 
have  an  elevation  of  17,819  feet,  98  feet  higher  than  Popocatepetl, 
which  is  usually  considered  the  highest  point,  —  5,400  metres,  or, 
17,721  feet,  as  given  by  Humboldt.^  The  temperature  was  just 
below  freezing  point.  My  attempt  to  burn  whiskey  failed.  Since 
my  return  to  the  United  States,  I  have  observed  that  Humboldt 
states  that  Mr.  Ferrar  measured  Orizaba,  eight  years  before  his 
arrival  in  Mexico,  and  gave  the  mountain  an  elevation  of  5,450 
metres  or  17,885  feet.      Humboldt's  measurement,  made  from  a 

'  It  will  be  seen  hereafter  that  expeditions  subsequent  to  Humboldt's  calculation 
give  Popocatepetl  a  height  of  17,884  feet. 


DESCENT ANTIQUITIES   IN   STATE   OF  VERA   CRUZ.  193 

plain  near  Jalapa,  is  155  metres  less,  or  17,377  feet  in  all.  It  will 
be  seen  that  my  determination  agrees  very  nearly  with  that  of  Mr. 
Ferrar. 

"We  remained  on  the  summit  about  an  hour, — planted  our 
national  banner  and  saluted  it  with  three  hearty  cheers.  The  day 
was  clear,  but  the  atmosphere  thick  and  smoky,  so  that  we  did  not 
enjoy  the  views  we  had  hoped  for ;  but  as  we  believed  ourselves  to 
have  been  the  first  who  ever  looked  into  the  crater,  we  were  amply 
repaid  for  our  trouble. 

"  The  descent  was  by  no  means  so  difficult  as  the  ascent ;  a  slide 
on  the  snow  or  sand  carried  us  hundreds  of  feet  dow^n  a  space 
which  had  required  many  weary  steps  to  ascend.  About  dark  we 
arrived  at  our  encampment,  highly  delighted  with  our  trip,  though 
much  exhausted.  All  who  made  the  final  attempt  were  more  or  less 
affected  either  with  violent  headaches,  nausea,  and  vomiting,  or 
bleeding  at  the  nose.  The  veils  which  we  provided  for  our  journey 
did  good  service,  but  the  face,  and  particularly  the  lips,  of  all  who 
reached  the  summit,  became  so  extremely  swollen  and  cracked  as  to 
confine  them  to  their  rooms  for  several  days. 

"  The  difficulty  of  the  undertaking  had  been  greatly  magnified  ;  — 
none  of  our  preparations,  excepting  veils,  were  necessary.  The 
sand  is  the  most  serious  obstacle  to  be  overcome,  and  by  taking  a 
more  circuitous  route  from  our  last  encampment,  this  might  have 
been  avoided.  All  that  is  required  is  patience,  perseverance  and 
a  physical  constitution  capable  of  sustaining  fatigue." 

Ancient  Remains  in  the   State  or  Vera  Cruz. 

During  the  sojourn  of  Mr,  Norman  in  Mexico,  in  1844,  as  de- 
scribed in  his  "  Rambles  by  Land  and  Water,"  he  made  an  excur- 
sion to  visit  the  ancient  town  of  Panuco,  where  he  was  received 
with  the  greatest  kindness  and  hospitality  by  the  white  and  half- 
breed  inhabitants.  His  route  lay  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  and 
across  the  prairies  :  the  common  road  being  only  a  bridle  path 
through  the  forest  which  is  never  travelled  but  with  the  erreatest 
caution  and  watchfulness.  Here,  as  in  the  State  of  Tamaulipas,  he 
visited  the  Indian  huts  that  lay  in  his  way  ;  but  it  w^as  quite  impos- 
sible to  convince  the  credulous  children  of  the  wilderness  that  the 
acquisition  of  gold  was  not  the  real  object  of  his  visit;  —  and  this 
circumstance  may  account  for  the  fact  that  he  obtained  from  them 
so  little  information  respecting  the  neighborhood. 

Y 


194  RUINS    AT    PANUCO CIIACUACO SAN    NICOLAS. 

Panuco,  an  old  town  of  the  Huestecos,  which  is  subject  to  occa- 
sional inundation  during  the  rainy  season,  is  the  only  important  set- 
tlement above  Tampico,  on  the  Panuco  river,  and  contains  about 
four  thousand  inhabitants.  It  is  beautifully  seated  on  the  banks  of 
the  stream,  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  about  thirty  leagues  from 
Tampico  by  water  and  fifteen  by  land.  In  its  vicinity,  scattered 
over  an  area  of  many  miles,  are  ancient  ruins,  whose  history  is  not 
only  entirely  unknown  to  the  inhabitants,  but  seems  not  to  excite 
their  interest  or  curiosity.  Mr.  Norman  could  not  discover  the 
slightest  trace  of  a  tradition  on  the  subject  amongst  the  neighboring 
people,  though  he  diligently  sought  it  from  every  reliable  source. 
Several  days  were  employed  by  him  in  explorations,  and  his  toil 
was  occasionally  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  strange  and  novel 
objects.  Among  these  w^as  a  handsome  block  or  slab,  seven  feet  in 
length,  one  foot  in  thickness,  and  two  and  a  half  in  average  width. 
Upon  its  surface  was  beautifully  wrought,  in  bold  relief,  the  full  length 
figure  of  a  man  in  a  loose  robe,  with  a  girdle  about  his  loins,  his 
arms  crossed  on  his  breast,  his  head  encased  in  a  close  cap  or 
casque  somewhat  resembling  a  helmet  without  the  crest,  while  his 
feet  and  ankles  were  bound  with  the  thongs  of  sandals.  The  edges 
of  this  block  were  ornamented  with  a  plain  raised  border,  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  square.  The  figure  is  that  of  a  tall  athletic  man  of 
fine  proportions,  whose  features  are  of  the  noblest  class  of  the  Euro- 
pean or  Caucasian  race,  and  the  execution  of  the  sculpture  was 
equal  to  the  very  best  that  the  traveller  found  among  the  wonderful 
relics  of  the  country.  '  It  was  found  lying  on  the  side  of  a  ravine, 
resting  upon  the  dilapidated  walls  of  an  ancient  sepulchre,  of  which 
nothing  now  remains  but  a  loose  pile  of  hewn  stones.  It  was  more 
than  four  feet  beneath  the  present  surface  of  the  ground,  and  was 
brought  to  light  in  the  course  of  excavating  which  revealed  a  cor- 
ner of  the  slab,  and  the  loose  adjacent  stones  that  had  been  bared 
by  the  rush  of  waters  in  the  rainy  season,  while  breaking  a  new  and 
deep  channel  to  the  river.  The  earth  that  covered  the  slab  and 
sepulchre  had  not  been  heaped  by  the  hand  of  man  ;  but  was  the 
natural  accumulation  of  time,  and  many  years  must  have  been  re- 
quisite to  bury  it  so  deeply. 

Three  leagues  south  of  Panuco,  there  are  other  ancient  Indian 
remains  which  are  known  as  the  ruins  of  Chacuaco,  and  are  repre- 
sented as  covering  an  area  of  three  square  leagues,  all  of  which 
were  comprised  within  the  bounds  of  a  large  city ;  we  should 
mention  also  the  ruins  of  San  Nicolas,  five  leagues  south-west;  and 


196  AT    LA    TRINIDAD SMALL    FIGURES PAPANTLA. 

those  of  La  Trinidad,  about  six  leagues  in  nearly  the  same  direc- 
tion. Besides  these,  there  are  other  ruins  of  which  the  traveller 
was  informed,  situated  at  a  still  greater  distance,  all  of  which  pre- 
sent the  same  general  features  as  those  already  described,  and  pro- 
bably belonged  to  the  same  period,  or  were  built  by  the  same  race. 
The  whole  region  is  alleged  \^  to  be  full  of  these  memorials  of  the 
number,  power  and  wealth  of  the  ill-fated  nations  that  once  dwelt 
and  worshipped  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Mexican  Cordilleras. 

Domestic  utensils  made  of  the  ordinary  pottery  of  the  country, 
but  skilfully  and  even  artistically  formed,  have  been  exhumed  from 
among  these  ruins  of  ancient  cities ;  and  in  the  course  of  Mr.  Nor- 
man's explorations  he  unearthed  two  singular  and  grotesque  images 
which  probably  figured  in  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  Indians. 
Our  ti'aveller  found  that  similar  images  were  used  by  the  Indian 
women  of  the  present  day,  who  suspended  them  about  their  necks  as 
talismans,  and  especially  relied  on  them  in  seasons  of  sickness  and 
danger.  The  images  referred  to  are  hollow,  with  a  small  aperture 
near  one  of  the  shoulders,  and  are  filled  with  balls  as  large  as  a  pea, 
which  are  supposed  to  have  been  made  of  the  ashes  of  victims  sacri- 
ficed in  former  days  to  the  gods.  We  have  ourselves  seen  numbers 
of  these  earthern  figures  in  the  valley  of  Mexico,  where  they  are 
vulgarly  known  as  "  Mexican's  Idols."  Travellers  have  usually 
classed  them  among  the  Dii  Penates  or  household  gods  of  the  Az- 
tecs or  Toltecs,  but  we  have  regarded  them  either  as  the  ornaments 
of  a  primitive  people  or  as  the  dolls  and  playthings  of  their  chil- 
dren. In  our  plates  of  antiquities  discovered  in  the  valley,  several 
figures  are  to  be  found  which  we  think  belong  unquestionably  to 
this  class. 

Pyramid  of  Papantla. 

Sixteen  leagues  from  the  sea  and  fifty-two  north  of  Vera  Cruz, 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cordilleras,  lies  the  village  of  Papantla, 
in  the  midst  of  plains  which  are  constantly  fertilized  by  streams  that 
descend  from  the  mountains.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  remarkably  rich 
agricultural  district,  capable  of  producing  the  most  luxuriant  crops 
of  pepper,  coffee,  tobacco,  cotton,  vainilla,  sugar  and  sarsaparilla, 
and  abounding  in  all  varieties  of  valuable  w^oods  ;  but  the  heat  and 
maladies  of  the  burning  climate  prevent  the  whites  from  venturing 
to  till  so  dangerous  a  district.  Accordingly  we  find  that  this  In- 
dian village  has  hardly  a  single  Spanish  inhabitant  or  visiter  except 
the  priest  and  the  traders  who  come  from  the  coast  to  traffic  their 
foreign  goods  for  the  products  of  the  aborigines.     Two  leagues 


IT'S  in   -'  <^_r- 


.^i 


PYRAMID    OF    P  A  P  A  N  T  t,  A . 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    PYRAMID. 


197 


from  this  secluded  hamlet,  lie  spread  over  the  plain,  the  massive 
ruins  of  an  ancient  city,  which  in  its  palmy  days  was  more  than  a 
mile  and  a  half  in  circuit.  It  is  a  matter  of  great  regret  that  these 
relics  have  never  been  sufficiently  explored,  drawn  and  described. 
The  most  satisfactory  account  that  we  possess  of  them  is  that  given 
in  the  "  Voyage  Pittoresque  et  Archeologique  "  of  Monsieur  Nebel, 
who  visited  them  several  years  ago,  and  has  sketched  the  beautiful 
pyramid  represented  in  the  plate,  which  is  unquestionably  one  of 
the  most  perfect  and  symmetrical  relics  of  antiquity  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  republic.  Time  has  done  its  work  upon  this  remarka- 
ble remain  ;  and  trees,  plants  and  vines,  which  grow  so  rapidly  in 
this  teeming  climate,  have  sprung  among  its  joints  and  stories. 

The  Indians  of  the  neighborhood  call  this  pyramid  "  El  Tajin ;" 
it  consists  of  seven  bodies,  stages  or  stories,  each  of  which  rises  at 
the  same  angle  of  inclination,  and  is  terminated  by  a  frieze  and  cor- 
nice. It  is  constructed  of  sandstone  beautifully  squared,  joined 
and  covered  with  hard  stucco,  which  appears  to  have  been  painted. 
The  pyramid  measures  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  on  every  side 
at  its  base,  and  is  ascended  by  a  stair  composed  of  fifty  seven  steps, 
each  measuring  one  foot  in  height,  and  terminating  at  the  top  of  the 
sixth  story.  This  stairway  is  divided  in  three  places,  by  square  re- 
cesses two  feet  in  depth,  resembling  those  which  perforate  the 
friezes  on  each  of  the  stories.  The  stair  ends  at  the  top  of  the  sixth 
story,  and  the  seventh,  w'hich  seems  to  be  in  ruins,  is  hollow,  and 
was  probably  the  shrine  wherein  sacrifices  were  offered  before  the 
image  of  the  god  to  whom  the  pyramid  was  dedicated.  Monsieur 
Nebel  does  not  state  the  height  of  this  edifice ;  but  as  he  gives  the 
elevation  of  each  of  the  fifty-seven  steps,  we  may  calculate  that  the 
summit  of  the  shrine  is  at  least  sixty-six  feet  above  the  base. 


ANCIENT    HEADS    MADE    OF    CLAY. 


198 


RUINS    AT    MAPILCA. 


'S-V\  '::  -  ■-;>^\^-- 


M  A  P  I  L  C  A  . 

A  few  leagues  from  Papantla,  near  an  Indian  rancho  called  Ma- 
pilca,  JNIr.  Nebel  found  pyramids,  scul])tured  stones,  and  the  ruins 
of  an  extensive  city,  which  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  examine  in 
consequence  of  the  thick  vegetation  with  which  they  are  covered  in 
the  dim  recesses  of  the  forest.  The  artist  was  alone  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  unaided  except  by  a  few  indolent  Indians  who  were  indis- 
posed to  further  his  researches.  The  stone,  which  is  presented  in  the 
annexed  drawing,  is  twenty-one  feet  long,  and  of  a  close  grained 
granite ;  the  figures,  carved  on  its  surface,  differ  from  the  ancient 
sculptures  found  on  this  side  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  resemble  those 
found  in  Oajaca,  more  than  any  others  in  Mexico.  Mr.  Nebel 
caused  an  excavation  to  be  made  in  front  of  this  relic,  which  he 
supposed  had  once  formed  part  of  an  edifice,  and  at  some  distance 
below  the  surface  he  struck  upon  a  road  formed  of  irregular  blocks, 
not  unlike  the  old  Roman  pavements. 


PYRAMID  AND  TEMPLE  AT  TUSAPAN. 


199 


■■''^rt'.ijfr'^ 


TUSAPAN. 


About  fifteen  leagues  west  from  Papantla,  in  a  small  plain  at  the 
feet  of  the  eastern  Cordillera  of  Mexico,  are  the  remains  of  Tusa- 
pan,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  city  of  the  Totonacs.  The 
vestiges  of  this  little  Indian  city  are  almost  obliterated,  and  the  only 
very  significant  relics  are  the  pyramidal  edifice  exhibited  in  the  an- 
nexed plate,  and  a  singular  fountain,  a  drawing  of  which  is  given 
in  the  work  of  M.  Nebel. 

The  pyramid,  built  of  stones  of  unequal  size,  extends  thirty  feet 
on  each  of  its  sides  at  the  base,  and  tKe  summit  of  its  single  story 
is  reached  by  a  flight  of  stairs.  Upon  the  platform  of  this  base  a 
square  tower  is  erected,  which  is  entered  by  a  door  whose  posts  and 
lintel,  as  well  as  the  friezes  of  the  edifice,  have  been  elaborately 
carved.  In  front  of  the  door,  within  the  tower,  stands  the  pedestal 
of  the  ancient  divinity,  but  the  idol  itself  has  been  destroyed.  The 
interior  of  this  apartment  is  twelve  feet  square,  and  its  ceiling,  like 
the  external  roof,  terminates  in  a  point. 

Around  the  pyramid  are  scattered  masses  of  stones,  sculptured 
into  the  images  of  men  and  various  animals  ;  and  from  the  inferior 
manner  in  which  the  carving  on  these  objects  is  executed,  we  may 
judge  that  this  religious  temple  was  not  the  most  celebrated  archi- 
tectural or  artistic  work  of  the  ancient  inhabitants. 
z 


200  ISLE    OF    SACRinCIOS. 

The  fountain  which  we  have  already  mentioned  is  a  single  female 
figure  in  an  indecent  squatting  attitude,  nineteen  feet  high,  and  cut 
from  the  solid  rock.  The  remains  of  a  pipe  which  conveyed  the 
water  to  it,  are  still  visible  behind  the  head,  and  the  liquid  passed 
through  the  body  of  the  gigantic  image  until  it  w^as  discharged  be- 
neath into  the  basin  or  canal,  by  M'hich  it  was  carried  to  the  neigh- 
boring town.  The  Indian  tradition,  as  recounted  by  Nebel,  states, 
that  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  spot,  abandoned  it,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  unfertility  of  the  soil  and  the  failure  of  the  streams, 
and  that  they  took  refuge  in,  or  united  themselves  with  the  occupants 
of  Papantla. 

ISLAND    OF    SACRIFICIOS. 

At  the  period  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,  this  small  island,  which 
lies  a  few  miles  from  the  present  city  and  port  of  Vera  Cruz,  and 
under  whose  lee  is  found  the  best  anchorage  on  the  Eastern  Coast 
for  vessels  of  war,  was  unquestionably  a  spot  sacred  to  sacrifice 
and  burial. 

But  no  one  seems  to  have  examined  this  island,  with  a  truly  anti- 
quarian spirit,  until  it  was  visited  in  1841,  by  M.  Dumanoir,  who 
commanded  a  French  vessel  of  war  which  was  then  anchored  at  the 
island.  Previous  to  this  time  it  had  been  trodden  by  thousands  of 
idle  sailors  and  landsmen  who  raked  its  surface  for  the  Indian 
relics  of  pottery  and  obsidian  which  lay  scattered  in  every  direc- 
tion ;  and,  consequently  there  was  little  of  value  to  be  discovered 
above  ground.  Accordingly,  Monsieur  Dumanoir  undertook  to 
make  suitable  excavations,  and,  in  the  centre  of  the  islet  he  discov- 
ered various  sepulchres,  in  which  the  skeletons  were  found  in  a 
state  of  excellent  preservation.  Besides  this,  his  trouble  was  re- 
warded by  the  exhumation  of  large  numbers  of  clay  vases,  covered 
with  paintings  and  etchings,  together  with  idols,  images,  collars, 
bracelets,  arms,  teeth  of  dogs  and  tigers,  and  a  beautiful  urn  carved 
either  in  w^hite  marble  or  in  the  alabaster  which  abounds  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Puebla. 

M  I  S  A  N  T  L  A  . 

About  thirty  miles  from  the  town  of  Jalapa,  on  a  ridge  of  moun- 
tains in  the  canton  of  Misantla,  rises  the  Cerro  or  hill  of  Estillero, 
near  which  there  is  a  precipitous  mountain  on  whose  narrow  strip 
of  table  land  at  the  summit,  were  discovered  in  1835,  the  remains 
of  an  extensive  ancient  city.  The  site  of  this  town  is  perfectly 
isolated.  Steep  rocks  and  deep  ravines  surround  the  mountain  upon 
which  it  was  built,  and  beyond  these  dells  and  precipices  there  is  a 


> 

2! 
O 

» 


202 


MISANTLA. 


lofty  wall  of  hills  from  whose  summit  the  sea  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Nautla  is  distinctly  visible.  The  table  lands  upon  which  the 
ruins  are  found  is  only  approachable  by  the  gentler  declivities  in 
the  direction  of  the  hill  of  Estillero ;  and,  at  all  other  points, 
the  lonely  eminence  appears  to  have  been  sundered  from  the  sur- 
rounding regions  by  some  volcanic  convulsion. 


"i|.^-^ 


MISANTLA. 


As  the  mountain  plain  on  the  summit  is  approached,  the  traveller 
first  discovers  a  broken  wall  of  massive  stones,  feebly  united  by 
cement,  which  seems  to  have  served  for  the  boundary  of  a  circular 
plaza  or  area  in  whose  centre  rises  a  pyramid  eighty  feet  high,  forty- 
nine  feet  broad,  and  forty-two  deep.  It  is  divided  into  three  stories 
or  stages,  and  along  the  sloping  sides  of  the  lower  and  broadest  ter- 
race, a  stairway  leads  to  the  first  offset.  The  second  stage  is 
ascended  by  a  stair  at  the  side,  and  the  top  of  the  third  is  reached 
by  steps  niched  into  the  corner  of  the  pyramid.  In  front  of  the 
edifice,  on  the  second  story,  are  two  pilastral  columns,  which  it  is 
supposed  may  have  been  portions  of  the  stairway ;  but  this  part  of 
the  teocalli,  and  its  upper  story  are  so  wildly  overgrown  with  trees 
and  tropical  vegetation  that  the  outline  of  the  structure  is  greatly  ob- 
literated. On  the  summit,  a  gigantic  tree,  has  sent  its  roots  deep  into 
the  spot  which  was  doubtless  once  the  shrine  of  the  Indian  temple. 


REMAINS    NEAR    PUENTE     NACIONAI-.  203 

Beyond  the  wall  of  the  circular  area  in  which  this  edifice  is 
placed,  are  found  the  remains  of  the  city  or  town,  extending  nearly 
three  miles  north  in  a  straight  line.  The  foundations  of  all  the 
houses  are  still  distinctly  traceable.  They  were  built  of  large 
square  stones,  and  are  separated  by  streets  at  the  distance  of  about 
three  hundred  yards  from  each  other.  In  some  of  the  blocks  of 
buildings  the  walls  are  yet  standing,  at  a  height  of  between  three 
and  four  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  South  of  the  city  are 
seen  the  relics  of  a  low  narrow  wall,  by  which  it  was  defended  in 
that  direction;  —  and  north  of  it  there  is  a  tongue  of  land,  jutting 
out  towards  the  precipitous  edges  of  the  mountain,  whose  centre  is 
occupied  by  a  mound  which  the  explorers  have  supposed  to  be  the 
ancient  cemetery  of  the  inhabitants.  On  the  left  acclivity  of  the 
slope  by  which  the  town  is  approached  are  twelve  sepulchres,  seven 
feet  in  diameter,  and  as  many  high,  in  which  several  bodies  were 
found,  parts  of  which  were  in  good  preservation.  The  walls  of 
these  tombs  are  constructed  of  cut  stone ;  but  the  mortar  that  pro- 
bably once  joined  them,  has  entirely  disappeared.  Several  erect 
and  sitting  figures,  carved  in  stone,  were  discovered  on  the  site  of 
this  city,  and  two  blocks  were  found,  filled  with  hieroglyphic  char- 
acters. Numbers  of  vases  and  utensils,  were  also  unearthed ;  but 
they  were  carried  to  Vera  Cruz,  and  all  trace  of  them  has  been 
subsequently  lost.^ 

REMAINS    NEAR    PUENTE    NACIONAL. 

About  a  league  and  a  half  from  the  Puente  Nacional,  or  National 
Bridge,  to  the  left  of  the  high  road  in  the  midst  of  a  dense  forest, 
and  near  the  banks  of  the  stream  known  as  the  Rio  del  Puente, 
Don  Jose  Maria  Esteva  found  some  interesting  remains  of  antiquity 
in  November  of  1843.  They  had  been  visited  in  1819  or  '20,  by 
a  priest,  named  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  who  was  then  curate  at  Puente 
Nacional,  but  from  that  period  until  1843,  they  had  been  entirely 
lost  sight  of.  The  temple  or  teocalli,  is  situated  on  the  top  of  a 
small  mount,  elevated  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  stream,  which  runs  at  its  feet.  In  consequence  of  the 
inequality  of  the  surface  of  the  soil,  the  edifice  is  thirty-three 
Spanish  feet  high,  on  some  of  its  sides,  and  forty-two  on  others. 
It  fronts  towards  the  east,  and  its  platform,  or  upper  level,  is 
reached  by  a  stairway  of  thirty- four  steps,  so  steep  as  to  be  almost 
perpendicular  to  its  base.  The  platform  is  forty-eight  Spanish  feet 
broad,  and  seventy  long.  The  semi-circumference  of  the  base  is 
'  See  Mosaico  Mejicano. 


204 


REMAINS    NEAR    PUENTE     NACIONAL. 


stated  to  be  one  hundred  and  six  feet.  The  edifice  is  surrounded  by 
six  stairways,  one  foot  broad,  and  the  distance  between  each  step 
or  stage  of  the  body  of  the  teocalli,  is  about  seven  feet  high  nearest 
the  base,  their  height  diminishing,  however,  as  you  ascend  to  those 
nearest  the  platform.  The  whole  structure  is  built  of  lime,  sand 
and  large  stones  taken  from  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  although 
shrubs  have  grown  both  on  the  platform  and  on  the  stairways,  this 
interesting  relic  of  antiquity  has  been  so  completely  protected,  that 
its  form  is  still  perfectly  preserved.  At  first  sight  the  edifice  would 
seem  to  be  perfectly  solid,  yet  upon  examination  it  has  been  found 
to  be  hollow,  and  that  its  ancient  entrance  was  from  the  west. 
This  entrance,  however,  is  so  small  that  notwithstanding  the 
efforts  of  laborers  who  were  employed  by  the  explorer  to  clear 
the  fallen  rubbish  and  open  a  path,  they  were  unable  to  penetrate 
the  whole  of  the  interior  chambers.  The  short  time  they  were 
enabled  to  devote  to  this  work,  and  the  fear  of  the  Indians  to  en- 
counter wild  beasts  and  serpents  in  the  interior  of  the  temple, 
deterred  Senor  Esteva  from  further  efforts,  and  thus,  perhaps,  one  of 
the  most  perfect  remains  of  antiquity  on  the  east  coast  of  Mexico 
is  still  very  inadequately  described.  ^ 

'  See  Museo  Mejicano,  vol.  2,  p.  465,  for  a  plate  of  this  temple. 


PUENTE     NACIONAL. 


TAMAULIPAS BOUNDARIES KIVERS LAGUNES.  205 

THE    STATE    OF    TAMAULIPAS. 

This  State  was  known,  previous  to  the  revokition,  as  the  Iten- 
dencia  de  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  included  the  colony  of  Nuevo 
Santander.  It  is  now  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  North  American 
State  of  Texas ;  on  the  north-west  by  the  Mexican  State  of  Coa- 
huila;  on  the  west  by  the  States  of  New  Leon  and  San  Luis  Potosi; 
on  the  south  by  San  Luis  Potosi  and  Vera  Cruz ;  and,  on  the  east, 
by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  breadth  of  the  State  varies  from 
twelve  to  fifty-five  leagues. 

The  coast  of  Tamaulijaas  is  more  than  three  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  in  length,  and  is  fringed  with  lagunes,  varying  from  four  to 
eighteen  miles  in  width,  which  are  divided  from  the  gulf  by  barriers 
and  banks  of  sand.  The  shallowness  of  the  shores  along  the  whole 
of  this  coast,  and  the  dangerous  bars  which  choke  the  mouths  of 
the  rivers,  render  the  navigation  difficult  and  dangerous  for  vessels 
of  almost  all  classes.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Rio  Grande,  the  country  is  comparatively  level. 
South  of  these  high  plains,  however,  and  some  distance  in  the 
interior,  the  land  is  varied  by  a  succession  of  mountains,  hills  and 
vallies,  which  gradually  slope  eastwardly  until  they  are  lost  in  the 
flats  and  sands  of  the  sea  coast.  The  Cerro  de  Martinez,  the  Cerro 
de  Xeres,  the  Cerro  del  Coronel,  and  the  mountain  ridges,  or  sierras, 
de  la  Palma  and  del  Carico,  are  the  most  remarkable  elevations. 
The  land  is  well  watered.  Fine  vallies  extend  along  the  Rio  del 
Norte  or  Rio  Grande,  the  Tigre,  Borbon,  Panuco  and  Dolores.  On 
the  coast  are  found  the  lagunes  of  La  Madre,  Morales  and  Tampico. 

The  climate  of  the  interior  of  Tamaulipas  is  mild  and  healthy; 
but  on  the  coast  an  intense  heat  prevails  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year,  and,  combined  with  the  rank  vegetation  and  moisture, 
produces  diseases  similar  to  those  which  scourge  the  adjacent  shores 
of  Vera  Cruz.  As  soon  as  the  northers  begin  to  blow,  all  nature  — 
animal  and  vegetable  —  is  refreshed  by  the  grateful  change ;  but  the 
hot  season  generally  recommences  in  March,  and  soon  spreads 
miasma  and  death  throughout  the  whole  of  the  low  lands. 

The  population  of  Tamaulipas,  —  consisting  chiefly  of  Meztizos 
and  Indians,  —  was  estimated  by  the  Mexican  Calendar  of  1833,  at 
166,824,  who  were  divided  among  three  departments  and  eleven 
districts  or  cantons.  In  1842  the  population,  as  stated  in  the 
estimate  for  a  congress,  was  100,068;  and  if  to  this  we  add  ten  per 
cent,  for  the  estimated  increase  in  seven  years,  we  shall  hav€ 
110,074  in  1850. 


206  Cr.I.MATK  POPULATIOX PRODUCTIONS TOWNS. 

The  chief  productions  and  the  indigenous  plants  are  similar  to 
those  found  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz ;  and  considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  with  the  interior  —  especially  with  the  States  of  San 
Luis  Potosi,  Zacatecas,  and  Queretaro,  —  in  mules,  oxen,  horses, 
honey  and  wax.  The  coasting  and  foreign  commerce  is  conducted 
principally  in  the  ports  of  Tampico  de  Tamaulipas  and  Matamo- 
ros.  From  these  places,  large  quantities  of  European  and  North 
American  manufactures,  enter  the  middle  and  northern  States  of 
the  republic.  Queretaro,  San  Luis,  Nuevo  Leon,  Coahuila,  Zaca- 
tecas, Jalisco,  Durango,  Chihuahua  and  Sonora  are  all  benefitted 
by  this  trade  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  ;  and  the  Panuco,  Rio 
Grande  and  other  streams  are  all  availed  of  partially  for  this  interior 
trade  as  far  as  they  are  navigable.  At  Soto  la  Marina  an  important 
smuggling  business  was  long  and  vigorously  carried  on. 

The  capital  of  this  State  is  Victoria,  formerly  Santander,  a 
town  of  12,000  inhabitants.  Tampico  de  Tamaulipas,  on  the 
northern  bank  of  the  Panuco,  which  enters  the  Mexican  Gulf  five 
miles  below  the  town,  is  the  principal  commercial  port  of  the  State. 
Its  bar  is  dangerous  and  its  harbor  considered  unsafe.  Large  ves- 
sels  cannot  approach  the  town,  which  is  situated  among  extensive 
marshes.  It  is  visited  almost  every  year  by  the  yellow  fever  ;  yet 
its  foreign  commerce  is  extensive  and  appears  to  be  increasing. 

Soto  la  Marina  is  a  small  villajje  and  haven  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Santander,  on  its  left  bank.  It  is  composed  chiefly  of 
Indian  huts,  and  contains  about  3,000  inhabitants. 

Matamoros  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  or  Rio 
Bravo  del  Norte,  at  the  distance  of  ten  leagues  from  its  mouth.  It 
contains  about  10,000  inhabitants,  who  have  become  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  people  of  the  United  States  during  the  recent 
war.  The  climate  of  Matamoros  is  hot  and  sickly,  like  that  of 
Tampico  or  Vera  Cruz  ;  but  as  the  river  upon  which  it  lies  is  per- 
haps the  most  important  in  Mexico,  and  has  proved  navigable  by 
steamers  for  a  considerable  distance  in  the  interior,  it  is  probable 
that  this  place  will  become  the  depot  of  a  large  and  valuable  com- 
merce destined  for  the  supply  of  the  northern  States  of  the  Mexican 
confederacy.  By  the  treaty  of  1848,  the  Rio  Grande  became  the 
boundary  between  large  portions  of  the  two  republics  ;  and  as  the 
intervening  country  between  the  Nueces  and  the  Rio  Grande  is  not 
considered  at  present  attractive  for  agricultural  purposes,  it  is  likely 
that  it  will  long  continue  unoccupied  and  unsettled,  thus  leaving 
the  whole  of  our  commerce  to  be  conveyed  to  Matamoros,  or  to 
our  own  neighboring  settlements  on  the  opposite  shore,  for  distri- 
bution throughout  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande. 


ANTIQUITIES    OF    TAMAULIPAS TOPILA.  207 

The  other  towns  and  villages  in  Tamaulipas  worthy  of  note,  are 
Altainira,  Horcasitas,  Coco,  Escandon,  Llera,  Santillana,  Padilla, 
Hoyos,  Guadalupe,  Reinosa,  Camargo,  Mier,  Revilla,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  lie  on  the  margin  of,  or  near,  the  Rio  Grande. 

ANCIENT  REMAINS  IN  TAMAULIPAS. 

The  only  remains  of  Indian  architecture  and  civilization  of  whose 
existence  we  are  aware,  are  those  described  in  the  small  work  pub- 
lished by  Mr.  B.  M.  Norman  in  1845,  to  which  we  have  already 
alluded,  entitled  "  Rambles  by  Land  and  Water  or  Notes  of  Travel 
in  Cuba  and  Mexico."  This  gentleman's  notices  of  the  antiquities 
in  this  region  are  exceedingly  brief,  sketchy  and  indefinite,  nor  are 
the  illustrations  with  which  his  text  is  accompanied,  calculated  to 
convey  more  vivid  pictures  of  the  relics  he  visited  or  discovered  in 
the  course  of  his  investigations  along  the  margins  of  the  Panuco. 

Departing  from  Tampico,  in  March,  1844,  he  ascended  that  river 
in  a  canoe,  paddled  by  an  Indian,  and  before  nightfall,  on  the  second 
day  of  his  primitive  voyage,  reached  Topila  creek,  three  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  which  he  landed  at  a  rancho  or  cattle  farm,  belonging 
to  Seiior  Coss,  of  Tampico.  Five  miles  from  this  spot,  lying  to  the 
eastward  of  another  rancho,  he  found  several  considerable  mounds, 
one  of  which  was  more  than  twenty-five  feet  high  and  of  a  circular 
form.  At  its  sides,  a  number  of  layers  of  small  flat  well  hewn 
stones  were  still  to  be  seen;  while  scattered  about  were  many  others 
of  larger  size  and  various  shapes.  All  were  perfectly  plain  or  un- 
adorned, and  had  apparently  been  used  for  the  door  posts  and  lin- 
tels of  edifices. 

On  the  following  day,  the  traveller  visited  the  rancho  de  las  Pie- 
dras,  distant  about  two  leagues  and  a  half  in  a  southerly  direction 
from  the  bank  of  the  Topila.  Passing  through  a  dense  wilderness, 
he  reached  after  much  toil,  an  elevated  table  land  or  plateau,  near  a 
chain  of  hills  running  through  this  section  of  country  and  known 
as  the  Cerro  de  Topila.  Here  he  found  more  scattered  stones 
which  had  once  formed  parts  of  buildings ;  while,  further  on,  he 
discovered  several  mounds,  whose  sides  were  constructed  of  loose 
layers  of  smooth  and  uniform  blocks  of  concrete  sandstone.  Most 
of  these  layers,  had,  however,  fallen  from  their  places  in  the  tumuli, 
and  were  heaped  in  masses  near  their  base.  About  twenty  of  these 
mounds,  lay  contiguous  to  each  other,  varying  in  height  from  six  to 
twenty-five  feet,  some  being  circular  and  others  square.  The  prin- 
cipal elevation  in  this  group  of  pyramids  covers  an  area  of  about 
two  acres,  and  at  its  base,  Mr.  Norman  discovered  a  cylindrical 
2a 


208  RANCHO    DE    LAS    PIEDRAS SCULPTURE. 

stone  slab  seven  inches  thick,  four  feet  nine  inches  in  diameter,  and 
pierced  through  the  centre,  lying  upon  the  top  of  a  circular  wall 
whose  top  was  level  with  the  ground.  On  removing  this  stone  he 
found  a  well  filled  up  with  broken  stones  and  fragments  of  pottery. 
The  upper  portion  of  the  slab  bore  evidence  of  having  been  origi- 
nally sculptured,  but  the  tracings  of  the  chisel  were  so  much  worn 
by  time  and  seasons  that  they  could  not  be  drawn  with  accuracy. 
On  the  top  of  the  tumulus,  in  front  of  which  this  well  was  discov- 
ered, grew  a  wild  fig  tree,  whose  gigantic  height  of  more  than  an 
hundred  feet,  indicates  the  great  age  of  the  work  and  the  long  pe- 
riod of  its  abandonment. 

The  walls  of  the  adjacent  minor  mounds  had  all  fallen  inward, 
from  which  the  traveller  concluded  that  they  had  been  used  for  se- 
pulture ;  but  he  does  not  seem  to  have  taken  the  time  or  trouble  to 
verify  this  conjecture  by  personal  explorations.  The  ground,  for 
several  miles  around,  was  strewn  with  loose  hewn  stones  of  various 
shapes,  and  broken  fragments  of  pottery,  which  had  unquestionably 
formed  parts  of  domestic  utensils.  Fragments  of  obsidian,  which 
had  no  doubt  been  the  knives  and  weapons  of  the  former  inhabi- 
tants of  this  spot,  were  also  plentifully  scattered  about,  and  every 
indication  existed  of  a  dense  population  in  the  by  gone  days.  These 
ruins  are  placed  by  Mr.  Norman  in  98°  31'  west  longitude  and 
22°  9'  north  latitude. 

But  the  remains  of  edifices,  pyramids  and  tombs  were  not  the  only 
relics  found  by  the  traveller  in  these  dense  forests  bordering  the 
Atlantic  coast.  The  Indians  who  once  dwelt  in  this  district,  like 
the  Aztecs,  Zapotecs  and  Yucatese  had  evidently  devoted  them- 
selves to  sculpture ;  but  whether  for  the  purpose  of  simple  adorn- 
ment or  for  idolatry,  there  are  no  facts  to  apprise  us  with  certainty. 
The  most  remarkable  relic  found  by  Norman,  was  a  large  head, 
beautifully  cut  in  fine  sandstone,  of  a  dark  reddish  hue,  which 
abounds  in  the  neighborhood.  The  face  stands  out  in  bold  relief 
from  the  rough  block,  as  if  it  had  been  left  unfinished,  or  as  if  it 
was  originally  designed  to  occupy  a  place  among  the  ornamental 
portions  of  an  edifice.  The  industrious  traveller  caused  this  object 
to  be  borne,  with  others,  to  Tampico,  and  has  deposited  it  in  the 
collection  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society.  Other  stones,  of  a 
somewhat  similar  character,  attracted  his  attention,  but  the  most 
extraordinary  sculpture  he  has  described  in  his  work  is  that  to  which 
he  assigns  the  name  of  the  American  Sphynx.  It  is  the  image  of 
a  gigantic  turtle,  with  the  head  of  a  man  protruding  boldly  from 
beneath  its  carved  and  curving  case.     The  back  was  correctly  and 


REMAINS,  ETC.,  ETC.  209 

artistically  wrought,  and  all  the  lines  of  the  scales  were  neatly  cut  in 
exact  proportions.  There  were  also  in  many  parts  fainter  lines, 
shewing  that  the  peculiar  and  graceful  arabesques  which  are  wrought 
by  nature  on  the  shell  of  this  amphibious  animal,  had  not  been 
overlooked  by  the  artist.  This  huge  figure,  raised  on  its  four  legs, 
was  placed  upon  a  large  block  of  concrete  sandstone.  All  its  parts 
were  equally  true  to  nature.  It  was  much  mutilated,  and  the  human 
head  had  been  especially  injured,  but  not  sufficiently  to  obliterate  the 
artistic  workmanship  with  which  it  had  been  originally  chiselled. 

The  place  where  Mr.  Norman  found  these  remains  had  evidently 
been  the  site  of  a  large  city;  and,  proceeding  with  his  excavations 
among  huge  masses  of  earth  or  stones  of  every  size  and  shape,  he 
was,  at  length,  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  another  ancient 
figure.  It  was  merely  a  human  face,  in  full  relief  from  the  block, 
which  was  entirely  cut  away  from  the  top  and  bottom,  but  left  in 
two  nearly  circular  projections  at  the  sides.  The  ornaments  on  the 
head  are  peculiar,  and  are  formed  of  three  balls,  with  slight  inden- 
tations, connected  together  by  a  band  running  across  the  top  of  the 
cerebrum  and  terminating  at  the  sides  just  above  the  gigantic  ears, 
which  are  nearly  half  the  size  of  the  face.  The  features  and  con- 
tour of  the  head  are  described  as  not  resembling  those  of  the  Ameri- 
can or  Mexican  Indian  in  any  of  their  lines.  This  head  is  seven- 
teen inches  in  length,  twenty-one  in  width,  including  the  ears,  and 
ten  in  thickness.  It  was  found  on  the  side  of  a  large  pile  of  ruins  • 
the  remains  of  dilapidated  walls,  of  which  it  had  unquestionably 
formed  one  of  the  ornaments.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Mr.  Nor- 
man was  unable  to  devote  more  time  to  the  exploration  of  this  re- 
gion. His  antiquarian  researches  however  formed  only  an  episode 
in  his  travels  through  portions  of  Mexico,  and  besides  this,  his  labor 
was  exceedingly  great  in  cutting  his  way  through  the  dense  shrub- 
bery which  covers  the  ground  amid  a  wilderness  of  trees,  matted 
and  woven  together  with  thousands  of  creepers  or  plants  whose 
thorns  pierced  or  obstructed  him  at  every  moment.  He  had,  more- 
over, to  contend  with  myriads  of  annoying  insects,  and  he  feared 
the  bite  of  the  poisonous  alacranes  or  the  spring  of  the  tiger  that 
sometimes  started  from  the  thickets.  He  received  no  assistance 
from  the  stupid  Indians  dwelling  in  the  neighborhood.  They  could 
not  conceive  that  curiosity  alone  would  prompt  any  one  to  encoun- 
ter the  toil  and  danger  which  must  be  endured  in  explorations  in 
the  TiERRA  Caliente  of  Mexico,  and  imagined  that  the  search  for 
gold  and  buried  treasure,  rather  than  antiquities,  was  his  real  motive 
for  attempting  to  penetrate  the  recesses  of  their  lonely  wilderness. 


CHAPTER     III. 
WEST    COAST   OR   PACIFIC    STATES 


OAJACA EXTENT BOUNDARIES GEOLOGY VALLEY INDIANS 

DEPARTMENTS POPULATION MINES  PORTS  PRODUC- 
TIONS   CATTLE TOWNS ANCIENT  REMAINS MITLA THE 

PALACE TOMBS ANTIQUARIAN  SPECULATIONS CONNECTION 

OF  MEXICAN  REMAINS QUIOTEPEC,  OR  CERRO  DE  LAS  JUNTAS. 

THE    STATE    OF    OAJACA. 

This  rich  and  beautiful  State  lies,  for  118  leagues,  along  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  On  the  north-west,  it  is  bounded  by  the  State  of 
Puebla,  on  the  north  by  Vera  Cruz,  and  east  by  the  State  of  Chiapas 
and  the  republic  of  Central  America  or  Guatemala.  It  extends 
from  east  to  west  about  115  leagues,  and  from  north  to  south  322 
leagues,  containing  an  area  of  5,046  square  leagues. 

We  pass  now  from  the  hot  and  sickly  sands  and  marshes  of  the 
eastern  coast  to  a  region  which  has  been  considered  by  many 
writers  and  travellers  as  the  most  delightful  in  Mexico.  Beauty  of 
natural  scenery  and  salubrity  of  climate,  fertility  of  soil  and  richness 
of  productions,  combine  to  render  Oajaca  valuable,  not  only  in  a 
commercial  aspect,  but  as  a  residence  in  which  it  would  be  agree- 
able to  pass  a  life  time.  Nor  is  this  the  opinion  only  of  the  present 
inhabitants,  for  the  remains  of  antiquity  still  found  within  the  limits 
of  the  State,  prove  it  to  have  been  the  seat  of  Indian  civilization 
long  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  The  geological  structure 
of  this  State  is  different  from  that  of  Puebla  and  Mexico  ;  and  the 
vegetation  is  quite  as  vigorous  as  that  of  other  prolific  regions, 
without  the  rankness  which  produces  rapid  decomposition  and 
miasma.     The  rains  are  generally  abundant  from  May  to  October. 

In  our  general  description  of  the  geological  and  geographical 
characteristics  of  Mexico,  we  have  akeady  showa  that  the  great 


VALLEY INDIANS DEPARTMENTS POPULATION.         211 

Cordillera,  forming  the  spine  of  this  continent,  divides  into  two 
arms  after  leaving  the  Isthmus,  which  connects  North  and  South 
America.  One  of  these  mountain  ranges  with  its  high  vallies  and 
table  lands  forms  the  barrier  along  the  Pacific,  while  the  other 
spreads  out  its  massive  veins  throughout  the  middle  and  eastern 
portions  of  Mexico.  Between  these  formations,  the  Valley  of  Oajaca 
lies  embosomed ;  and  from  this  beautiful  and  fruitful  region,  which 
was  bestowed  by  the  Spanish  crown  upon  Cort6z,  he  obtained  his 
Marquisate  del  Valle  de  Oajaca,  in  which  his  family  still  possessed, 
previous  to  the  revolution,  49  villages,  with  a  population  of  17,700 
persons. 

In  these  two  mountain  regions,  thus  sundered  by  the  valley, 
have  dwelt,  from  the  earliest  periods,  two  Indian  races  known  as 
the  Mixtecas  and  the  Zapotecas;  the  former  of  which  is  characterised 
by  activity,  intelligence  and  industry.  Besides  these  tribes,  seven- 
teen others  are  reckoned  still  to  inhabit  Oajaca. 

The  State  is  divided  into  eight  departments,  which  are  subdi- 
vided into  districts  or  cantons. 

1st.  The  Department  of  the  Centre,  wnth  the  cantons  of  Oajaca, 
Partido  del  Toraneo,  Etla,  Tlacolula,  and  Zimatlan. 

2d.  Department  of  Ejutla,  with  the  cantons  of  Octolan,  Miahuat- 
lan,  and  Pochutla. 

3d.  Department  of  Jamiltepec,  with  the  cantons  of  Jamiltepec 
and  Juquila. 

4th.  Department  of  Tehuantepec,  with  the  cantons  of  Tehuan- 
tepec,  Quechapa  and  Lachixila. 

5th.  Department  of  Teposcolula,  with  the  cantons  of  Teposcolula, 
Tlaxiaco  and  Nocnistlan. 

6th.  Department  of  Huajuapam,  w4th  the  cantons  of  Huajuapam 
and  Justlahuaca. 

7th.  Department  of  Toochila  and  Villalta,  with  the  cantons  of 
Ixtlan,  Yalalag  and  Chuapam. 

8th.  The  Department  of  Teutitlan  del  Camino,  with  the  cantons 
of  Teutitlan  and  Teutila. 

These  eight  departments  and  twenty-three  cantons, — with  nearly 
700,000  inhabitants, — r  contain  one  city,  —  the  capital,  Oajaca  ; — • 
eight  towns  ;  nine  hundred  and  thirteen  villages  ;  one  hundred  and 
thirty-seven  large /mciendas  ;  two  hundred  and  thirty-five  ranchos ; 
sixty-eight  sugar  mills  or  trapiches,  and  six  estancias  or  cattle 
estates  and  grazing  farms.  Besides  these  elements  of  agricultural 
wealth,  Oajaca  possesses  ten  mills,  driven  by  water  power,  nearly 


212   MINES PORTS PRODUCTIONS CATTLE TOWNS. 

all  of  which  lie  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  capital,  and  are  used 
chiefly  for  wheat.  Corn  is  ground  or  rubbed,  for  tortillas,  on  the 
metate  by  the  Indian  women  throughout  Mexico ;  and  consequently 
but  little  of  this  kind  of  grain  is  ever  brought  to  the  mills.  There 
are  five  mines  or  mineral  workings  in  Ihe  State,  at  Ystepexi,  Talea, 
Teojomulco,  Penoles,  and  Las  Peras,  with  ten  smelting  and  amalga- 
mating establishments. 

There  are  nine  sea  ports,  roadsteads  and  anchorages  in  Oajaca, 
the  best  of  which  are  Tehuantepec,  Huatulco,  Escondido,  Chaca- 
hua,  and  Jamiltepec. 

Corn,  chile,  agave,  cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  cacao,  vainilla,  tobacco, 
cochineal,  wax,  honey,  and  a  small  quantity  of  indigo,  are  the 
staple  productions  of  this  State.  Nearly  all  the  fruits  which  we 
have  already  described  as  growing  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  are 
produced  here  abundantly,  and  of  excellent  quality. 

The  State  is  estimated  as  containing,  on  an  average  of  years  — 
44,106         ....         Horses. 

18,438 Mules. 

10,420         ....         Asses. 

171,518 Neat  cattle. 

213,156         ....         Sheep. 

158,009 Goats. 

47,947         ....         Hogs. 

Total,  663,600  head  of  cattle. 
The  worth  of  which  is  calculated,  in  the  home  market,  at  $3,332,757. 

Gold,  silver,  copper,  quicksilver,  iron,  rock  salt,  limestone,  gyp- 
sum, &c.,  are  found  in  Oajaca.  In  the  thirty-nine  years  between 
January,  1787,  and  March,  1826,  the  official  registers  show  a  pro- 
duct in  the  State  of  4,820  marks  of  gold,  and  544,257  marks  of 
silver;  and  in  the  five  years  from  March,  1826,  to  the  end  of  1830, 
95  marks  of  gold,  and  21,701  of  silver.  But  these  sums  must  not 
be  regarded  as  perfect  indications  of  the  absolute  product  of  Oajaca, 
inasmuch  as  its  proximity  to  the  sea,  and  the  facihties  for  smuggling 
in  the  lonely  districts  of  the  west  coast  have  no  doubt  enabled  the 
trading  community  to  export  a  large  portion  of  the  real  avails  of 
the  mines,  which,  of  course,  never  appear  in  the  authentic  registers 
and  returns  of  the  State. 

The  chief  towns  and  villages  of  this  State  are:  Oajaca,  the  capi- 
tal ;  Guayapa  or  Huazapa,  Talistaca,  Santa  Maria  del  Tule,  Tlaco- 
chahuaya,  Teutitlan  del  Valle,  Tlacolula,  Mitla,  the  ancient  Leoba ; 


ANCIENT    REMAINS MITLA.  213 

San  Dionisio,  Totolapa,  San  Carlos,  Villa  de  Nejapa,  Quijechapa. 
Quiegolani,  Tequisistlan,  Villa  de  Jalapa,  Tlapalcatepec,  Tehaun 
tepee,  San  Francisco  de  la  Mar,  Petapa,  Juchuitan,  Niltepec 
Yshuatan,  Zanatepec,  Tepanatepec,  Xoro  or  Xojocatlan,  Cuylapa, 
Zachila,  the  ancient  Teozapotlan ;  San  Bartolomeo  de  Zapeche, 
Zimatlan,  Villa  de  Santa  Anna,  Chilateca,  Santa  Cruz  Mistepec, 
San  Juan  Elotepec,  Etla,  San  Juan  del  Estado,  San  Pablo  Huizo 
or  Guajolotitlan,  Ejutla,  Ocotlan,  Chichicapa,  Ayoquesco,  Miahuat- 
lan,  Pochutla,  Santa  Cruz  de  Huatulco,  Juchatengo  Tonamaca, 
Jamiltepec,  Acatepec,  Juquila,  Sacatepec,  Santa  Maria  Istapa,  Teo- 
jomulco,  Huajuapan,  Justlahuaca,  Chicahuastla,  Achintla,  Teita, 
Villa  de  Teposcolula,  Talaxiaco,  Santa  Maria  Chimalapa,  Yanguit- 
lan,  Los  Pueblos  de  Almoloyas,  San  Miguel  Chimalapa  Nochistlan, 
Tilantongo,  Xaltepec,  Teutitlan  del  Camino,  San  Antonio  de  los 
Cues,  Tecomavaca,  Quiotepec,  Cuicatlan,  San  Pedro  Chiezapotl, 
Donomingullo,  Coyula,  Teutila,  Villalta,  Zoochila,  Zolaga,  Quet- 
zaltepec,  Totontepec,  Chuapan,  Chinantla,  Istlan. 

Ancient  Remains  in  Oajaca. 
MITLA. 

About  ten  leagues  from  the  capital,  on  the  road  leading  to  Te- 
huantepec,  are  the  remains  of  what  antiquarians  have  styled  the 
sepulchral  palaces  of  Mitla,  lying  in  the  midst  of  a  rocky  granitic 
region,  and  surrounded  by  sad  and  sombre  scenery.  According  to 
tradition,  these  edifices  were  erected  by  the  Zapotecs,  as  palaces 
and  sepulchres  for  their  princes.  It  is  asserted  that  at  the  death  of 
members  of  the  royal  family,  their  bodies  were  laid  in  the  vaults 
beneath,  while  the  sovereign  and  his  relatives  retired  to  mourn  the 
loss  of  the  departed  scion  in  the  chambers  above  these  solemn 
sepulchres,  which  were  screened  from  "the  public  eye  by  dark  and 
silent  groves. 

Another  tradition  declares  that  these  edifices  were  the  abodes  of  a 
sect  of  priests,  whose  duty  it  was  to  dwell  in  seclusion  and  offer  ex- 
piatory sacrifices  for  the  royal  dead  who  reposed  in  the  vaults 
beneath. 

The  village  of  Mitla  was  called  Miguitlan,  signifying,  in  the 
Mexican  tongue,  a  place  of  sadness  ;  while  by  the  Zapotecs  it  was 
named  Leoba,  or  "the  tomb." 

The  palaces  or  tombs  of  Mitla,  form  three  edifices,  symmetrically 
arranged  in  an  extremely  romantic  site ;  the  principal  and  best  pre- 
served edifice  has  a  front  of  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.     A 


Scale  of  Varus. 
RUINS    AT    .AI I  T  L  A . 


THE  PALACE TOMBS ANTIQUARIAN  SPECULATIONS.         215 

stair- way  through  a  dark  shaft  leads  to  a  subterranean  apartment  of 
one  hundred  feet  in  length,  by  thirty  in  width,  whose  w^alls  are  cov- 
ered with  Grecian  ornaments  similar  to  those  on  the  exterior  of  the 
edifice,  as  shown  in  the  plate.  These  external  walls  are  said  to  be 
decorated  with  labyrinthine  figures,  formed  by  a  mosaic  of  small  por- 
phyritic  stones,  and  we  recognize  in  them  the  same  designs  which 
are  admired  in  the  ancient  vases,  falsely  called  Etruscan,  and  on 
the  frieze  of  the  old  temple  usually  assigned  to  the  god  Redicolus, 
which  lies  near  the  grotto  of  Egeria  at  Rome. 

But  the  objects  which  chiefly  distinguish  the  architectural  remains 
of  Mitla  from  all  other  Mexican  antiquities  are  six  porphyritic 
columns,  which  support  the  ceiling  of  a  vast  saloon.  These  singu- 
lar columns,  —  almost  the  only  ones  found  in  the  New  World, — 
evince  the  extreme  infancy  of  art; — they  have  neither  bases  nor 
capitals,  and  are  cut  in  a  gradually  tapering  shape  from  a  solid 
stone,  more  than  fifteen  feet  in  length. 

The  distribution  of  the  apartments  in  this  extraordinary  edifice 
presents  some  striking  analogies  with  the  monuments  of  Upper 
Egypt,  described  by  Denon  and  the  savants  who  composed  the 
institute  at  Cairo.  Don  Pedro  de  Laguna,  who  examined  them 
carefully  many  years  ago,  discovered  on  their  walls  some  curious 
paintings  of  sacrifices  and  martial  trophies.  In  order  to  form  an 
idea  of  the  almost  Cyclopean  style  of  architecture,  we  may  remark 
the  extraordinary  dimensions  of  the  stones  above  the  entrances  to 
the  principal  halls.  Mr.  Glennie  states  that  one  of  these  masses  is 
eighteen  feet  eight  inches  long,  four  feet  ten  inches  broad,  and  three 
feet  six  inches  thick.  A  second  is  nineteen  feet  four  inches  long, 
four  feet  ten  and  a  half  inches  broad,  and  three  feet  nine  inches 
thick,  whilst  a  third  is  nineteen  feet  six  inches  long,  four  feet  ten 
inches  broad,  and  three  feet  four  inches  thick.  The  antiquarian 
will  not  fail  to  observe,  that  there  is  some  similarity  between  the 
exterior  of  tJiese  Oajacan  remains  and  those  which  have  been  un- 
covered and  described  in  Yucatan,  by  Stephens,  during  his  second 
expedition.  It  is  not  improbable  that  an  intercourse  existed  be- 
tween the  inhabitants  of  these  districts,  prior  to  the  Spanish  Con- 
quest. We  believe  that  these  architectural  remains  and  nearly  all 
of  those  in  Yucatan,  Chiapas  and  Guatemala,  were  the  abodes  and 
temples  of  the  Indians  who  dwelt  in  Mexico  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries when  Grijalva  and  Cortez  first  landed  on  our  continent.  The 
distance  from  Oajaca,  through  Chiapas  and  Tabasco,  to  Yucatan  is 
not  too  great  to  have  prevented  even  a  rapid  communication  from 

Mitla  to  Uxmal,  or  Palenque.     The  reader  will  recollect  that  the 
2b 


216  CONNECTION    OF    MEXICAN    REMAINS. 

realm  of  Montezuma  is  alleged  to  have  extended  to  near  the  pre- 
sent limits  of  the  Republic  of  Central  America  ;  nor  will  he  forget 
with  what  rapidity  the  well  trained  Indian  couriers  of  the  Emperor 
passed  over  the  three  hundred  intervening  miles  of  mountain,  plain 
and  valley,  between  Vera  Cruz  and  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  in  order 
to  inform  their  sovereign  of  the  Spaniards'  arrival  and  their  leader's 
determination  to  visit  the  Aztec  Court.  At  Cozumel,  and  else- 
where in  Yucatan,  the  earliest  Spanish  adventurers  were  struck  by 
the  architecture  of  the  edifices  which  were  inhabited  by  the  Indians. 
In  their  letters  and  narratives  they  always  speak  of  these  "  buildings 
of  stone  and  lime"  as  indicating  civilization.  The  Indian  deities 
were,  at  that  time,  unquestionably,  worshipped  in  them.  At  Cho- 
lula,  Tlascala,  and  Tenochtitlan  or  Mexico,  as  well  as  at  Tezcoco, — 
pyramids,  dwellings,  palaces,  walls,  streets,  causeways,  were  all 
built  of  stone  cemented  by  mortar,  and  many  of  these  objects  were 
profusely  ornamented.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  these  facts,  for 
they  were  attested  at  the  time  by  numerous  witnesses,  while  many 
of  the  material  relics  of  that  age  have  descended  even  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  and  may  still  be  inspected  in  the  capital  of  the  Republic. 
Why,  then,  should  we  hesitate  to  believe  that  a  vast  chain  of  civil- 
ized, intelligent  and  affiliated  nations,  co-existed  on  the  central  part 
of  this  continent  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  that  the  ruined  cities, 
temples  and  pyramids  which  are  spread  from  the  waters  of  the  Gila 
as  far  south  as  Peru  and  Chili,  and  whose  wonderful  remains  are 
now  gradually  unearthed  by  the  industry  of  antiquarians,  are  the 
architectural  fragments  of  their  national  grandeur  ? 

We  do  not  conceive  it  necessary  to  throw  back  the  Indian  archi- 
tects into  the  gloom  of  antiquity,  long  anterior  to  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards.  There  is  a  natural  yearning  in  the  human  mind  for  the 
mystery  with  which  a  vague,  indefinite  epoch,  surrounds  ruins  that 
are  accidentally  discovered.  But  this  is  a  poetical  sentimen*,  rather 
than  a  fair  starting  point  in  archaiological  researches  ;  and,  in  spite 
of  the  national  vanity  which  might  be  gratified  by  proving  that 
the  aboriginal  civilization  of  our  continent  was  as  old  as  that  of 
Egypt,  we  shall  adhere  to  the  belief  that  Mitla,  Palenque,  Uxmal 
and  Quemada  were  inhabited  by  the  builders  or  their  descendants, 
whilst  the  thrones  of  Mexico  and  Peru  were  occupied  by  Monte- 
zuma and  Atahualpa. 


QUIOTEPEC,  OR    CERRO    DE    LAS    JUNTAS.  217 

QUIOTEPEC,    OR    CeRRO    DE    LAS    JuNTAS. 

In  1844,  an  examination  was  made  by  order  of  the  Governor  of 
Oajaca  of  the  ancient  remains  situated  near  the  village  of  Quiotepec, 
about  thirty-two  leagues  north  from  the  capital  of  Oajaca.  These 
ruins  are  found  on  the  Cerro  de  las  Juntas,  or  Hill  of  the  Union, 
so  called  from  its  vicinity  to  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Quiotepec 
and  Salado. 

The  eminence  is  covered  in  almost  every  direction  with  remains 
of  military  works  of  a  defensive  character,  calculated  to  protect  the 
dwellings  erected  on  the  hill,  and  the  extensive  temple  and  palace, 
whose  massive  ruins  still  crown  the  summit.     These  remains  are 
said  to  resemble  those  of  Chicocomoc  or  Quemada,  in  the  State  of 
Zacatecas,  which  will  be  fully  described  in  our  notice  of  that  portion 
of  Mexico.     The  similarity  consists  in  the  style  of  the  architecture, 
and  the  evident  mingling  of  defence  and  worship.     There  is  no  re- 
semblance, however,  to  the  remains  found  in  Yucatan  as  described 
by  Stephens,  Catherwood  and  Norman,  where  the  designs  are  all 
highly  ornamental,  denoting  a   higher  state  of  luxury,  taste  and 
progress  in  civilization.     The  teocalli  or  temple  of  Quiotepec  and 
that  of  Chicocomoc  or  Quemada  are  both  pyramidal,  like  most  of 
the  Aztec  religious  structures ;  but  the  architectural  style,  generally, 
at  the  former  place,  is  rather  more  sumptuous  than  at  Quemada.  ^ 
Besides   these  remains,  there   are  many  others  in  the   State  of 
Oajaca,  which  are  still  inadequately  known  or  described,  such  for 
instance,  as  the  turmuli  and  pyramids  at  Montealban,  two  leagues 
south-west  from  Oajaca ;  —  the  relics  of  many  strong-holds  ;  —  the 
turmuli  at  Zachila ;  —  the  ruins  at  Coyula  and  at  San  Juan  de  los 
Cues. 

In  the  museum  of  the  University  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  private 
collection  of  the  late  Ex-Conde  del  Fenasco,  we  found  some  re- 
markable figures  chiselled  from  a  finely  grained  sand  stone,  two  of 
which  are  represented  in  the  succeeding  pages.  They  were  found 
in  the  State  of  Oajaca.  Their  use  or  their  symbolical  character 
have  never  been  accurately  detected ;  but  in  the  last  of  the  two  we 
may  observe  quite  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  some  of  the  idols 
still  to  be  seen  in  the  temples  of  India. 

>  See  Museo  Mejicano,  vol.  3d,  p.  329,  for  lithographic  sketches  of  the  palace  and 
temple,  and  their  monuments.  See  also  vol.  1st  of  the  same  work,  p.  401  ;  and  vol. 
3d  id.,  p.  135,  for  descriptions  of  Zapotec  remains  ;  and  vol.  1st  id.,  p.  246,  for  an 
imperfect  account  of  military  remains,  fortifications,  &c.  &c.,  near  Guiengola,  near 
Tehuan  tepee 


FIGURE    FROM    OAJACA. 


FIGURES    FROM    OAJACA. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

PUEBLA DIVISIONS  PRODUCTIONS FACTORIES.  RIVER  

STREAMS  PUEBLA    DE    LOS  ANGELES CATHEDRAL TOWNS 

MINES,  QUARRIES MOUNTAINS POPOCATEPETL ATLIXCO 

OLIVARES ASCENT     OF     THE     MOUNTAIN THE    CRATER 

ELEVATION. PYRAMID    OF   CHOLULA VISIT    TO    THE    PYRAMID 

CORRECT     DIMENSIONS. TERRITORY     OF    TLASCALA HISTORY 

POSITION SIZE PRODUCTIONS TOWNS. 


THE    STATE    OF    PUEBLA. 

Nearly  all  of  this  State  lies  in  the  torrid  zone,  occupying  a  por- 
tion of  the  table  land,  and  stretching  westwardly  down  the  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Madre  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between  the  parallels 
of  16°  17'  and  20°  40'  north  latitude.  From  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Tecoyame  to  Mextitlan,  it  is  126  leagues  long,  and  from 
Tehuacan  to  Mecameca,  53  leagues  broad.  It  contains  an  area 
of  2,700  square  leagues.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the 
State  of  Queretaro,  north-easterly  by  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz, 
easterly  by  Oajaca,  westwardly  by  Mexico  and  south-westwardly, 
for  28  leagues,  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  last  enumeration  of  in- 
habitants to  which  we  have  access,  assigned  954,000  individuals  to 
the  State  of  Puebla,  in  the  year  1832;  but  the  estimate  made  for 
the  basis  of  a  call  of  congress  in  1842,  gave  it  only  661,902. 

This  State  is  divided  into  25  partidos,  or  districts,  the  chief  of 
which  are  Atlixco,  Guauchinango,  Ometepec,  Puebla,  Tepeaca, 
Tehuacan  de  las  Granadas,  Tlapan,  and  Zacatlan.  It  possesses  5 
cities  and  towns,  126  parishes,  590  villages,  412  haciendas  or  planta- 
tions, and  857  large  and  small  ranchos  or  farms.  The  surface  of 
this  State  is  divided  between  mountains,  vallies,  plains  or  lowlands; 
and  produces  corn,  wheat,  barley,  chile,  maguey,  beans  and  all  the 
hardier,  together  with  some  of  the  southern  fruits  and  plants.  The 
wheat  flour  of  Puebla  is  celebrated  for  its  excellence,  and  has  some- 
times been  exported  to  Havana  and  South  America. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Oajaca  cochineal  is  sometimes  produced; 
and  on  the  low  lands  towards  the  western  coast,  cotton,  rice,  and 
small  quantities  of  coffee  and  sugar  are  cultivated.  The  Llanos  de 
Apam,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  State  of  Mexico  are  celebrated 
for  their  fertility,  and  especially  renowned  for  the  excellence  of  the 
pulque,  produced  from  the  maguey  or  Agave  Americana. 


RIVER STREAMS PUEBLA   DE  LOS   ANGELES. 


221 


Nearly  four-fifths  of  the  real  property  of  Puebia  either  belongs  or 
is  hypothecated  to  the  church  and  to  hospitals,  and  consequently 
the  agriculture  of  the  State  is  not  as  well  managed  as  if  the  land 
belonged  to  independent  farmers,  who  derived  their  wealth  directly 
from  the  soil.  Great  poverty  prevails  among  the  lower  classes,  and 
their  sad  condition  is  generally  attributed  in  Mexico  to  the  mis- 
management of  real  estate  by  the  clergy. 

The  water  power  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Puebia  has 
given  a  stimulus  to  manufactories,  and  the  reader  will  find  in  our 
chapter  upon  that  branch  of  Mexican  industry  some  interesting 
statistical  facts  showing  the  progress  made  by  the  inhabitants  of  this 
portion  of  the  Republic. 

The  only  river  of  any  importance  in  Puebia  is  the  Rio  de  Tlas- 
cala  or  Papagallo,  which  rises  in  the  table  lands,  and  runs  southerly 
from  the  village  of  Ayiitla  to  the  Pacific.  The  Pascaqualca,  Tacu- 
napa,  Tecoyama,  and  the  San  Jose  are  insignificant  streamlets  along 
the  coast. 


CITY    OF     P U  S  B  L  A . 


The  chief  cities  of  this  State  are  Puebia  or  Puebia  de  los  Ange- 
les —  the  "  City  of  the  Angels,"  —  which  is  the  capital  and  the  seat 
of  the  State  government.     It  is  a  beautiful  town,  lying  in  the  midst 


222  CATHEDRAL TOWNS MINES QUARRIES. 

of  a  fruitful  plain  bounded  by  the  mountains,  and  shut  in  at  the  west 
by  the  gigantic  peaks  of  Popocatepetl  and  Iztaccihuatl.  Broad, 
clean  and  well  paved  streets  cross  it  at  suitable  distances.  The 
houses  are  large,  convenient  and  neat,  and  numerous  churches  for- 
ever send  forth  the  music  of  their  bells.  A  beautiful  public  walk, 
planted  with  rows  of  trees,  runs  along  a  small  stream  on  the  out- 
skirts of  the  city ;  and  an  Alameda,  of  exceeding  beauty,  lies  oppo- 
site the  extensive  pile  of  San  Francisco  on  the  west.  In  the  centre 
of  the  town  is  a  large  well  paved  public  square,  surrounded  by  por- 
tales  or  arches,  similar  to  those  of  Bologna,  in  Italy,  while  in  its 
centre  is  the  massive  cathedral  whose  wealth  is  renowned  among 
the  Roman  Catholic  churches  of  America.  A  splendid  and  weighty 
chandelier,  composed  of  gold  and  silver,  weighing  altogether  seve- 
ral tons,  depends  from  the  dome,  whilst  the  figures  of  saints,  the 
tops  of  altars,  and  the  recesses  of  chapels,  gleam,  on  State  occasions 
with  a  display  of  precious  metals  and  jewels  which  is  perhaps  une- 
qualled even  by  the  cathedral  of  Mexico  or  the  sanctuary  of  Guada- 
lupe. There  are  other  establishments  in  Puebla  belonging  to  the 
Franciscan  and  Augustin  monks,  and  several  churches,  which  are 
celebrated  for  their  elegance,  comfort  and  wealth.  The  Palace  of 
the  Bishop,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cathedral,  is  a  massive  edifice, 
containing  a  library  of  many  thousand  volumes  in  a  saloon  200  feet 
long  by  40  broad. 

The  other  towns  of  this  State  are: — Cholula,  adjacent  to  the 
remains  of  the  Pyramid  of  Cholula,  which  will  be  subsequently  no- 
ticed ; — Atlixco;  Guauchinango,  in  the  northern  valley  of  the 
State,  where  the  Indians  still  indulge  in  their  ancient  sport  of  the 
Juego  del  Volador  or  flying  game;  —  Tehuacan  de  las  Grana- 
DAS,  containing  near  6,000  inhabitants ;  Tepeaca  or  Tepeyacac, 
where  Cortez  laid  the  foundations  of  a  city  which  he  called  "  Scgu- 
ra  de  la  Fronteraf  —  Huajocingo  or  Huexotzingo  ;  Chiautla, 
Tlapan,  TIacotepec,  Amozoque,  San  Martin,  Nopaluca,  Acajete, 
Ojo  de  Agua. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  various  mines  of  gold  and  silver  were 
wrought  in  the  old  Intendencia  de  Puebla,  at  Yxtacmaztillan,  Te- 
mistla,  and  Alatlanquitepec  in  the  district  of  San  Juan  de  los  Llanos, 
as  well  as  at  Tet^la  de  Xonotla  and  at  Zacatlan ;  but  none  of  these 
are  at  present  productive.  Quarries  of  fine  marble  exist  at  Totame- 
huacan  and  Tecali,  two  and  seven  leagues  distant  from  the  capital. 
Limestone  is  found  in  quantities,  and  a  beautiful  transparent  ala- 
baster is  also  procured,  which  is  used  for  windows  in  the  library, 
museum  and  churches.     If  the  transportation  of  these  weighty  arti- 


POPOCATEPETL. 


MOUNTAINS POPOCATEPETL ATLIXCO OLIVARES.       233 

cles  were  not  so  expensive  in  Mexico,  this  alabaster  might  be  pro- 
fitably exported  to  Europe,  where  its  extreme  purity  and  clearness 
would  probably  ensure  its  preference  to  all  indigenous  qualities. 
Extensive  salt  works  are  carried  on  at  Chila,  Xicotlan,  Ocotlan  and 
Zapotlan. 

Some  of  the  most  remarkable  geological  characteristics  3f  the 
Mexican  Republic  are  found  in  the  three  celebrated  mountains  oJ 
Popocatepetl,  Iztaccihuatl,  and  Malinche  or  Matlacueye,  which  lie 
in  the  State  of  Puebla.  The  latter  of  these,  sometimes  called  La 
dona  Maria,  lies  between  the  volcanoes  of  Puebla  and  those  of  Ori- 
zaba and  Perote,  but  does  not  require  special  mention  except  as 
forming  a  striking  and  picturesque  feature  in  the  landscape.  But 
the  other  two  deserve  our  special  notice. 

ASCENT  OF  THE  VOLCANO  OF  POPOCATEPETL. 

The  mountains  of  Popocatepetl  and  Iztaccihuatl  border  the  State 
of  Puebla  on  the  west.  The  following  account  of  the  ascent  of  the 
former  of  these  gigantic  volcanoes  is  founded  on  the  journal  pub- 
lished in  Spanish  in  May,  1827,  by  Messieurs  Frederick  and  Wil- 
liam Glennie,  who  were  in  the  service  of  the  British  United  Mining 
Company,  and  Mr.  John  Taylour,  a  merchant  of  the  city  of  Mexico. 

On  the  16th  of  April,  1827,  the  party  left  the  capital  early  in 
the  day,  accompanied  by  their  sevant  Jose  Quintana,  and,  pro- 
vided with  barometer,  sextant,  chronometer,  telescope,  and  other 
instruments,  reached  the  village  of  Ameca,  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  mountain,  where  they  halted  for  the  night. 

On  the  17th  they  continued  their  route,  following  the  road  to 
Puebla  which  leads  through  the  gap  of  the  two  mountains,  intend- 
ing to  go  to  Atlixco.  In  the  highest  part  of  the  gap  they  took  the 
road  to  the  right  which  is  called  "  de  los  neverosy'^  (those  who  pro- 
cure ice  for  the  capital,)  and  having  reached  the  limit  of  vegetation, 
which  according  to  their  barometrical  measurements  is  12,693 
English  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  they  met  with  some  men 
who  informed  them,  that  in  this  direction  they  could  not  reach  the 
summit,  nor  prosecute  their  way  to  Atlixco  on  account  of  the  great 
quantity  of  sand.  With  this  information  they  returned  to  the  road 
they  had  left,  and  reached  the  village  of  St.  Nicolas  de  los  Ranchos. 

On  the  following  day  they  continued  towards  Atlixco.  The  road 
here  edges  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountain,  skirting  an  ex- 
tensive district  covered  v»'ith  large  rocks  and  loose  stones.  Having 
understood  that  the  village  of  Tochimilco  is  nearest  to  the  volcano, 
they  determined  to  go  thither  to  obtain  information  relative  to 
2c 


224  ASCENT  OF  THE  MOUNTAIN. 

the  adventure.  The  Alcalde  Don  F.  Olivares,  who,  'though  the 
owner  of  Popocatepetl,  had  never  reached  the  summit,  gave  them 
all  the  information  he  j)ossessed,  offered  to  accompany  them,  and 
procured  guides  and  carriers  for  their  instruments.  They  appointed 
the  next  day  to  go  to  his  Hacienda  de  St.  Catalina,  which  is  at  the 
very  foot  of  the  principal  mountain  and  belongs  to  that  estate. 

On  the  19th  they  proceeded  to  the  hacienda,  where  they  were 
soon  joined  by  Senor  Olivares,  who  was  prevented  by  some  busi- 
ness from  accompanying  them  any  farther.  He  furnished  them  a 
guide  who  conducted  them  through  a  thick  forest,  to  the  highest 
limit  of  the  pines,  w^hich  they  found  to  be  12,544  feet  above  the 
ocean.  Here  they  passed  the  night.  At  midnight  it  rained,  which 
was  soon  afterwards  followed  by  a  severe  hoar  frost. 

On  the  20th  of  April,  contemplating  to  reach  the  summit  this 
day,  they  distributed  tlie  instruments  among  the  carriers,  and 
mounted  on  the  mules,  began  the  ascent  at  half  after  three  in 
the  morning  by  the  light  of  the  moon.  After  travelling  a  short  dis- 
tance they  left  all  vegetation,  and  entered  a  district  of  loose  stones 
and  sand,  which  although  hardened  considerably  by  the  rain,  greatly 
fatigued  the  mules.  In  this  manner  they  ascended  on  the  south- 
west side  of  the  mountain,  until  half  past  six  when  they  could  pro- 
ceed no  further  with  the  mules,  as  much  because  they  were  too 
fatigtied,  as  on  account  of  the  steepness  of  the  volcano's  side. 
They  therefore  dismounted,  and  abandoning  the  mules,  gave  the 
barometer  in  charge  to  Quintana.  They  resumed  their  ascent  through 
a  soil  composed  of  loose  sand  and  stones,  with  many  fragments 
of  pumice  stone,  being  desirous  of  reaching  some  rocks  which  ap- 
peared to  be  connected  with  the  summit.  Here,  however,  the 
difficulties  commenced;  the  acclivity  was  very  steep,  the  footing  so 
loose  that  every  step  they  made  forward  they  slipped  back  nearly  the 
same  distance;  and  the  thinness  of  the  air  fatigued  them  so  much 
that  they  could  not  advance  more  than  fifteen  or  twenty  steps  without 
resting.  In  this  manner  they  proceeded  about  half  a  mile,  until  they 
reached  the  rocks,  where  they  waited  for  the  Indians  w^ho  followed 
more  slowly.  During  this  time  the  thermometer  stood  at  28°  of 
Fahrenheit.  The  sky  was  perfectly  clear,  but  a  dense  stratum  of 
vapor  rested  on  the  horizon,  which  prevented  them  from  perceiving 
any  object,  and  made  it  appear  as  if  they  were  in  the  midst  of  an 
ocean.  At  8  o'clock  A.  M.  they  first  saw  the  sun.  As  soon  as 
the  Indians  arrived,  they  took  a  light  breakfast,  and  continued 
ascending  among  large  loose  stones,  which  have  rolled  from  the 
summit,  an  i,  arrested  by  each  other  in  their  course,  have  formed  a 


ASCENT  OF  THE  MOUNTAIN.  225 

kind  of  zone,  so  lightly  supported  however,  that  the  slightest  touch 
sets  them  in  motion.  This  naturally  alarmed  the  Indians,  who  de- 
clined going  any  farther ;  but  by  persuasions  and  promises  they 
succeeded  in  getting  them  to  advance.  Seeing,  how-ever,  that  the 
"oad  was  becoming  rather  worse,  all  further  means  of  persuasion 
to  induce  them  to  proceed  began  to  fail.  They  endeavored  to  as- 
cend through  a  gulley  which  they  had  perceived  on  their  left;  but 
the  way  thither  was  very  difficult,  and  was  rendered  more  perilous 
by  clouds  which  prevented  their  distinguishing  any  thing.  Here 
the  Indians  entirely  refused  to  stir  any  further,  and  having  given 
them  part  of  the  provisions,  they  were  sent  with  the  baggage  to 
wait  at  the  place  where  they  had  encamped  the  night  before. 
This  circumstance  very  much  discouraged  the  travellers.  Being 
left  without  instruments  they  had  to  relinquish  the  physical  and 
astronomical  observations  which  they  had  proposed  to  make,  and 
thereby  missed  the  principal  object  of  their  journey.  They  never- 
theless determined  to  persevere,  for  the  purpose  of  examining  well 
the  situation,  and  noting  such  points  as  might  facilitate  any  subse- 
quent attempt  undertaken  with  better  preparations. 

Soon  after  this  the  clouds  dispersed,  and  they  reached  a  passage 
which  was  very  steep  and  covered  with  loose  stones,  and  through 
which  they  ascended  with  much  labor,  extending  their  line  so 
as  to  prevent  the  stones  rolling  on  those  below.  The  fatigue  and 
the  pain  in  their  knees,  obliged  them  to  rest  every  eight  or  ten 
paces.  After  an  hour's  travelling  in  this  manner  they  reached  a  body 
of  basaltic  rock,  which  being  very  steep  they  could  not  surmount 
but  with  great  difficulty,  and  only  by  leaping  from  one  rock  to  the 
other,  at  great  risk.  After  this  they  got  into  a  bed  of  loose  sand, 
(apparently  pumice  stone  reduced  to  dust,)  and  ascended  to  a  very 
high  rock,  which  from  Mexico  appears  like  a  speck.  The  rock  is  a 
great  mass  of  compact  black  basalt  forming  some  imperfect  pillars, 
the  fissures  being  filled  with  solid  ice. 

They  observed  from  time  to  time  small  stones  falling  upon 
them,  as  if  thrown  from  above,  and  began  to  experience  head- 
ache and  nausea,  which  affected  Quintana  more  than  the  others. 
The  barometrical  observation  here  showed  an  elevation  of  16,895 
English  feet  above  the  ocean.  After  taking  some  slight  refresh- 
ments, and  resting  about  an  hour,  they  continued  their  ascent. 

It  is  impossible  to  detail  the  particulars  of  the  frequent  difficul- 
ties and  risks  encountered  until  the  explorers  reached  the  sandy  ac- 
clivity which  forms  the  dome  of  the  mountain,  and  the  firmness 
with  which  they  overcame  them.     At  this  point  they  took  another 


226  THE     CRATER ELEVATION. 

short  rest — fancying  themselves  very  near  the  end  of  their  labors, 
and  deceived  by  the  great  rarefaction  of  the  air,  which  made  objects 
appear  much  nearer  than  they  really  were,  they  forgot  what  they 
had  already  undergone,  and  Mr.  Glennie  was  entirely  taken  up 
with  the  prospect  of.  soon  putting  his  barometer  in  operation  on 
the  very  summit.  At  this  time  Quintana  who  had  smoked  a  good 
deal  and  was  otherwise  much  fatigued,  complained  of  excessive 
headache  and  fell  down  exhausted.  They  concluded  that  at  these 
great  elevations  smoking  is  as  impracticable  as  the  use  of  ardent 
spirits.  The  servant  was  vainly  encouraged  to  proceed,  and  finding 
it  impossible,  they  directed  him  to  await  their  return  where  he  was. 

They  had  before  them  a  smooth  expanse  of  sand,  which  on  their 
left  was  covered,  from  the  summit  down,  with  ice  or  crystallized 
snow,  forming  a  great  variety  of  cubic  and  prismatic  figures.  Con- 
tinuing their  ascent  along  the  edge  of  this  snow,  they  heard  a  noise 
like  distant  thunder,  and  concluding  that  it  was  raining  somewhere, 
they  proceeded  about  a  league,  making  frequent  halts,  being  greatly 
distressed  with  violent  pains  in  the  head  and  knees,  nausea,  and 
difficulty  of  respiration.  They  had  passed  the  whole  day  in 
absolute  solitude ;  encountering  neither  plant,  bird  nor  even  the 
least  insect.  All  they  saw  around  them,  were  fractured  rocks,  thaJ 
had  undergone  fusion,  blistered  fragments,  and  heaps  of  rub- 
bish, sand  and  ashes.  While  contemplating  these  images  of  de 
struction,  they  unexpectedly,  about  five  o'clock  P.  M.,  arrived  al 
the  border  of  an  immense  abyss,  throwing  up  a  shower  of  stones, 
with  a  noise  similar  to  that  produced  by  the  waves  of  the  sea  beat- 
ing against  a  wall.  Natural  emotion  and  surprise  obliged  them  to 
recede  some  paces.  Their  hair  stood  on  end  —  their  shoulders  fell — 
and  they  felt  a  sudden  nauseating  emptiness  of  the  stomach.  With- 
out being  able  to  speak,  they  could  but  look  at  each  other,  until  this 
sensation  of  sickness  and  horror  had  subsided.  They  then  returned 
to  observe  the  crater,  and  examined  the  barometer,  whose  mer- 
curial column  measured  only  15.63  English  inches,  while  the  ther- 
mometer attached  to  it  was  at  39°  and  the  detached  one  33°  Fah- 
renheit. They  then  sat  dovt-n  to  contemplate  the  scene  around 
them,  to  take  notes,  and  make  drawings. 

They  observed  that  most  of  the  stones  which  were  thrown  up  in 
the  eruptions,  fell  within  the  crater,  the  rest  fell  over  the  south  side. 
The  dull  sound  which  was  constantly  heard  within  increased  from 
time  to  time,  and  terminated  with  an  explosion,  at  which  time 
stones,  sand,  and  ashes  were  thrown  up.  Those  eruptions  were 
frequent  —  some  stronger  than  others.     From  various  places  in  the 


THE     CRATER ELEVATION.  227 

interior  and  near  the  edge  of  the  crater,  arose  small  columns  of 
smoke,  the  principal  of  which  were  three  on  the  east  side,  and  at  a 
considerable  depth  within  the  crater.  The  crater  itself  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  large  funnel,  w^hose  sides  are  but  little  inclined,  and 
the  bottom  of  which  is  not  visible.  The  sides  are  furrowed  by  nu- 
merous guUeys  which  descend  from  around  the  mouth  of  the  crater, 
having  the  appearance  of  the  radii  of  a  circle  towards  the  centre. 
There  are  three  distinct  rings,  or  excavations,  which  divide  the 
crater  into  four  zones  of  different  dimensions,  the  largest -being  that 
nearest  the  mouth,  and  which  is  of  solid  rock,  the  others  appear  to 
be  composed  of  sand.  The  snow  occupies  only  the  exterior  part  of 
the  summit,  and  that  part  of  the  interior  of  the  crater  which  faces  to 
the  north,  w'here  its  limits  cannot  be  discovered.  The  mouth  of 
the  volcano  is  nearly  circular,  about  a  mile  in  diameter,  and  ap- 
pears much  lower  on  the  eastern  than  on  the  western  side.  The 
lip  of  the  southern  side  is  very  thin,  and  so  broken  that  it  seems 
impossible  to  walk  on  it,  while  the  northern  part,  on  the  contrary, 
is  broad  and  more  even. 

On  account  of  a  thick  stratum  of  mist  by  which  they  were  sur- 
rounded, the  intrepid  travellers  could  only  see  the  summit  of  the 
peak  of  Orizaba,  and  the  neighboring  snow-capped  mountains  to 
the  north. 

Having  completed  the  observations,  and  night  approaching,  they 
descended  by  the  same  way  towards  the  place  where  they  had  left 
the  servant,  with  the  intention  of  passing  the  night  there  and  return- 
ing to  the  summit  next  morning;  but  finding  the  man  in  a  high 
fever  with  a  violent  pulse  and  headache,  they  resolved  on  descend- 
ing. To  relieve  him,  he  was  carried  over  the  most  difficult  places, 
and  finding  it  impossible  to  descend  by  the  same  path  by  which 
they  had  ascended  in  the  day,  they  took  at  once  that  bend  of  the 
mountain  which  is  called  "de  los  Neveros;"  and  which,  although 
very  steep,  is  composed  of  loose  sand  through  which  they  descended 
very  rapidly.  It  was  after  night  when  they  arrived  at  the  limit  of 
vegetation,  but  having  taken  a  different  direction,  they  did  not  strike 
the  place  where  they  expected  to  meet  the  Indians.  They  made  a 
large  fire  as  a  signal,  but  the  Indians  did  not  make  their  appear- 
ance; and  on  the  following  morning,  the  21st  of  April,  separating 
to  the  right  and  left,. and  after  shouting,  they  soon  rallied  the  In- 
dians. The  reunited  party  descended  to  the  rancho  de  la  Vaqueria, 
and  from  this  they  passed  through  the  village  of  Atlauca;  at  eight 
in  the  evening  reached  Ameco,  and  on  the  23d  of  April  returned 
to  Mexico. 


228  PYRAMID    OF    CHOLULA. 

Longitude  east      Elevation  above  tlie 
Names  of  places.  N.  Latitude      from  Mexico.         level  of  the  ocean. 

Ameco  a  village                     19°  7'  40"     0°  23'  30"  8,216  Eng.  feel. 

St.  Nicolas  de  los  Ranches     19°  4'  21"     0°  32'  30"  8,087  do. 

Tochimilco 6,930  do. 

Superior  limit  of  pines             .....  12,544  do. 

Limit  of  all  vegetation 12,693  do. 

Picacho  de  S.  Guliermo ' 16,895  do. 

The  most  elevated  border  of  the  crater  of  the 

volcano  of  Popocatepetl     ....  17,884  do. 

Rancho  de  la  Vaqueria 10,784  do. 

Remains  of  Antiquity  in  the  State  of  Puebla. 
T  U  E    r  Y  R  A  .^I  I  D    OF    CHOLULA. 

The  vast  plain  of  Puebla,  separated  from  the  Valley  of  Mexico 
by  its  gigantic  chain  of  bordering  mountains,  is  full  of  interesting 
associations  and  studies  for  the  antiquarian ;  but,  among  all  of  the 
sites  signalized  in  the  history  of  the  Aztecs  or  of  the  Spanish  Con- 
quest, no  one  is  more  generally  sought  by  the  traveller  than  the 
Pyramid  of  Cholula.  Its  lofty  remains  lie  about  three  leagues  west- 
ward from  the  city  of  Puebla,  and  are  easily  reached  by  a  pleasant 
ride  over  the  plain.  The  pyramid  was  originally  built  of  sun  dried 
bricks,  or,  adobes^  rising  in  four  stories  connected  by  terraces. 
Many  years  ago,  in  cutting  a  new  road  from  Mexico  towards 
Puebla,  it  became  necessary  to  cross  a  portion  of  the  base  of  this 
pyramid,  and,  in  the  course  of  the  excavation,  a  square  chamber 
was  opened,  which  was  found  to  be  constructed  of  stone  with  a 
roof  supported  by  cypress  beams.  Some  idols,  carved  in  basalt,  a 
number  of  painted  earthen  vases,  and  two  bodies  were  found  in  this 
cavity,  but  as  no  care  was  taken  of  these  relics  by  the  discoverers, 
and  as  their  explorations  were  not  prosecuted  deeper  into  the  bowels 
of  the  gigantic  mound,  the  world  is  now  quite  as  ignorant  of  its 
ancient  uses  as  it  was  during  the  possession  of  the  country  by  the 
Spaniards.  The  most  recent  publication  upon  the  subject  of  Cho- 
lula by  Senor  Gondra,  the  Curator  of  the  National  Museum,  in  the 
University  of  Mexico,  merely  repeats  the  thrice  told  tales  of  the  last 
century. 

The  top  of  this  pyramid  is  reached  by  paths  that  climb  its  sides 
amid  masses  of  debris  and  groves  of  bushes  which  have  driven  their 

'  This  peak  which  is  visible  from  Mexico,  has  been  thus  denominated  in  honor 
of  Mr.  Wil  iam  Glennie,  who  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  expedition. 


VISIT    TO    THE    PYRAMID.  229 


roots  deeply  between  the  fissures  of  the  bricks.  The  level  sum  nit 
protected  by  a  parapet  wall,-and  once  the  shrine  of  Quetzalcoatl- 
the  "Feathered  Serpent,"  or  "  God  of  the  Air,"-is  now  adorned 
with  a  small  dome-crowned  chapel,  surrounded  with  cypresses  and 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin  of  Remedios  ;  while,  from  all  parts  of  the 
eminence,  a  magnificent  panorama  of  the  fruitful  plain  spreads  out 
at  the  feet  of  the  spectator. 

The  following  extract  from  a  communication  by  an  officer  of  our 
army,  in  1847,  during  the  invasion  of  Mexico,  contains  some  mte^- 
estino-  facts,  and  corrects  scientifically  the  measurements  of  the 
pyramid  which  were  made  by  Baron  Humboldt : 

All  the  mornings  of  this  elevated  region,  even  in  the  ramy  sea- 
son   are  bright  and  charming;  the  sun  rises  in  unclouded  splendor, 
^iklincr  one  of  the  most  magnificent  landscapes  the  imagination  can 
concefve,  whilst  the  atmosphere  is  so  pure  and  elastic  that  it  is  a 
positive  pleasure  to  breathe  it.     On  such  a  morning,  in  company 
with  the  4th  regiment  of  artillery,  acting  as  infantry,  and  a  squad- 
ron of  horse,  we  sallied  from  the  city  through  the  garita  of  Cholula 
and  soon  found  ourselves  in  the  extensive  plain  skirting  the  base  of 
the  volcanoes  of  Puebla-Popocatepetl  and  Iztaccihuatl.     Before 
us  glittered  in  the  morning's  sun  their  snow-capped  summits;  on 
our  rio-ht  rose  the  Malinche,  with  its  craggy  crest  partially  envel- 
oped In  a  wreath  of  mist;  whilst  behind  us,  in  the  far  distance, 
towered  the  indistinct  form  of  the  Orizaba-that  well-known  land- 
mark of  the  seaman,  that  serves  to  guide  him  in  calm  and  in  storm, 
hundreds  of  miles  along  the  Mexican  coast.     The  nearer  landscape 
was  as  soft  and  picturesque  as  its  more  distant  features  were  grand 
and  sublime.     A  green  meadow  or  prairie  extended  around  us  for 
some  miles  in  every  direction,  dotted  with  villas  and  haciendas,  and 
relieved  by  occasional  patches  of  cultivation,  and  avenues  and  clus- 
ters of  the  beautiful   shade  willow.     Herds  of  cattle  and  horses 
era/ed  as  quietly  on  the  surrounding  estates  as  though  "  gnm-vis- 
Led  war"  had  long  since  "  smoothed  his  wrinkled  front,     and  our 
military  escort,  as  it  wound  its  way  over  the  fair  landscape   with 
dittering  arms  and  glancing  banners,  seemed  more  like  a  holyday 
Lcession  than  a  band  of  stern  veterans  so  recently  from  the  con- 
flict, and  so  soon  to  enter  it  again.    A  ride  of  an  hour  and  a  quarter 
which  our  horses,  as  they  snuffed  the  morning  breeze  and  scented 
the  fresh  grass  of  the  meadows,  seemed  to  enjoy  as  much  as  their 
riders,  brought  us  to  the  base  of  the  far-famed  pyramid,  which,  inde- 
pendently of  its  historical  recollection,  and  the  great  interest  attached 


230  CORRECT    DIMENSIONS. 

to  it  as  a  work  of  art,  forms  one  of  the  most  picturesque  features  ot 
the  landscape.     At  a  short  distance  it  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
natural  mound,  covered  with  a  luxuriant  growth  of  trees  and  shrub- 
bery, and  is  surmounted  by  a  simple  chapel,  whose  belfry  towers 
some   eighty  feet  above  the  pyramid.      A  road  winds  round  the 
pyramid  from  base  to  summit,  up  which  we  passed  on  horseback. 
This  road  is  cut  into  the  pyramid,  in  some  places,  six  or  eight  feet, 
and  here  one  sees  the  first  evidence  of  the  artificial  construction  of 
the  latter.     It  is  built  of  adobes,  or  sun-dried  brick,  interspersed 
with  small  fragments  of  stone — porphyry  and  limestone.    Its  dimen- 
sions, as  stated  by  Humboldt,  are:  base  1,060,  elevation  162  feet; 
but  its  altitude  is  much  greater.     On  the  day  of  our  visit,  Lieutenant 
Semmes,  of  the  navy,  who  had  provided  himself  with  a  pocket  sex- 
tant and  tape-line  for  the  purpose,  determined  its  altitude  to  be  205 
feet.     As  this  measurement  differed  so  widely  from  that  of  Hum- 
boldt, Lieut.  S.  requested  Lieut.  Beauregard,  of  the  engineers,  who 
visited  the  pyramid  a  few  days  afterwards,  to  test  his  observations ; 
which  Lieut.  B.,  using  a  longer  base,  did,  making  the  altitude  203 
feet.     These  two  observations,  from  different  points,  with  different 
bases,  and  both  with  the  sextant,  show  conclusively  that  Humboldt, 
who  used  a  barometer,  is  in  error.     The  mean  of  the  two  is  204 
feet,  which  we  may  henceforth  regard  as  the  true  height  of  this  ex- 
traordinary monument — being  nearly  half  as  great  as  that  of  the 
pyramid  of  Cheops  in  Eg}-pt.     The  pyramid  of  Cholula  is  quad- 
rangular in  form,  and  truncated — the  area  of  the  apex  being  165 
feet  square.     On  this  area  formerly  stood  a  heathen  temple,  now 
supplanted  by  the  Gothic  church  of  our  Lady  of  Remedios.   The 
temple  on  this  pyramid  was,  in  the  days  of  Cortez,  a  sort  of  Mecca, 
to  which  all  the  surrounding  tribes,  far  and  near,  made  an  annual 
pilgrimage,  held  a  fair,  and  attended  the  horrible  human  sacrifices 
peculiar  to  their  superstition.    Besides  this  great  temple,  there  were, 
as  we  learn  from  the  letters  of  Cortez  to  Charles  V.,  and  also  from 
the  simple  diary  of  his  doughty  old  Captain,  Bernal  Diaz,  some  400 
others  in  the  city,  built  around  the  base  of  the  larger.     The  city 
itself  contained  40,000   householders,   and  the   whole   plain  was 
studded  with  populous  villages.     The  plain  is  now  comparatively  a 
desert,  and  two  or  three  thousand  miserable  leperos  build  their  mud 
huts  and  practice  their  thievish  propensities  upon  the  site  of  the 
,  holy  city. 


o 
o 

*^ 
o 

a 
c 

f 


"4,,,/' 


it 

m 


TERRITORY  OF  TLASCALA HISTORY,  POSITION,  SIZE.         231 


THE  TERRITORY  OF  TLASCALA. 

The  history  of  Mexico  has  ever  held  in  sacred  regard  the 
region  of  this  ancient  republic,  whence  Cortez  and  the  Spaniards 
derived  such  eminent  assistance  in  the  conquest  of  the  Aztec  Em- 
pire. Immediately  after  that  event  it  was  erected  into  a  province, 
under  which  character  it  was  always  regarded  until  the  political 
emancipation  of  Mexico  from  Spain,  and  even  after  that  event  up 
to  the  period  of  the  adoption  of  the  Acta  Constitutiva,  when  Tlas- 
cala  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  State,  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
Mexican  Republic.  The  constitution,  sanctioned  on  the  4th  of  Oc- 
tober, 1824,  deferred  defining  absolutely  the  political  character  of 
this  region ;  but  on  the  24th  of  November  of  the  same  year,  it  was 
constitutionally  declared  to  be  a  Territory  of  the  Confederation. 
When  the  Central  Government  was  subsequently  adopted,  it  was 
added,  under  the  denomination  of  a  district,  to  the  Department  of 
Mexico ;  but  when  the  federal  system  was  restored  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  6th  of  August,  1846,  which  was  afterwards  national- 
ized by  the  decree  of  the  provisional  government  on  the  22d  of  Au- 
gust of  the  same  year,  and  confirmed  by  the  sovereign  congress  on 
the  18th  of  May,  1847,  Tlascala  re-entered  the  federal  association 
in  its  original  character  of  a  territory. 

Tlascala  comprehends  within  its  limits  a  superficial  extent  of  four 
hundred  square  leagues,  and  contains  one  city,  one  hundred  and 
nine  villages,  eighteen  settlements,  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight 
haciendas  or  large  estates,  ninety-four  ranchos  or  small  farms,  eight 
grist  mills,  two  iron  works,  and  one  woollen  factory.  It  is  divided 
into  the  three  partidos  of  Tlaxco,  Huamantla  and  Tlascala,  the  lat- 
ter of  which  contains  the  capital  town  of  the  same  name  about  seven 
leagues  north  of  Puebla.  The  territory  is  of  an  oval  form,  lying  be- 
tween forty  minutes  and  one  degree  thirty-three  minutes  east  longi- 
tude from  Mexico,  and  nineteen  degrees,  and  nineteen  degrees  forty- 
two  minutes  of  north  latitude.  Its  climate  is  mild  and  healthful, 
and  its  population,  which  in  1837,  was  rated  at  about  eighty  thou- 
sand, has  been  found  to  increase,  on  comparison  of  a  number  of 
years,  about  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-eight  annually, 
of  which  nine  hundred  and  thirty-seven  are  males,  and  nine  hundred 
and  forty-one  females. 

The  productions  of  Tlascala  are  chiefly  of  a  cereal  character,  but 
its  genial  climate  and  soil  are  capable  of  yielding  the  fruits  of  the 
tierras  calientes,  frias^  and  templadas. 
2d 


232  TOWNS. 

The  capital  town  of  Tlascala  is  situated  between  two  moun 
tains,  in  19°  16'  of  north  latitude,  and  58'  east  longitude  from 
Mexico,  near  the  only  stream  of  importance  in  the  territory,  known 
as  the  Rio  Atoyac  or  Papagallo,  under  which  name  it  passes  through 
the  State  of  Puebla  on  its  way  to  the  Pacific.  The  ancient  numer- 
ous population  of  Tlascala  is  no  longer  found  within  its  limits,  and 
perhaps  net  more  than  four  or  five  thousand  individuals  now  inhabit 
it.  But  the  town  is  nevertheless  handsome  ; — its  streets  are  regular  ; 
its  private  houses,  town  hall,  bishop's  palace  and  principal  church 
are  built  in  a  style  of  tasteful  architecture,  while  on  the  remains 
of  the  chief  Teocalli  of  the  ancient  Tlascalans,  a  Franciscan  con- 
vent has  been  built,  which  is  perhaps  one  of  the  earliest  ecclesiastical 
edifices  in  the  republic.  In  the  town  itself  and  in  its  vicinity  many 
relics  and  ruins  of  the  past  glory  of  Tlascala  are  still  found  by  anti- 
quarians, but  they  have  hitherto  been  undisturbed  by  foreign  visiters 
and  remain  unnoticed  by  the  natives.  Huaraantla  and  Tlaxco  are  the 
chief  towns  or  villages  in  the  partidos  which  bear  their  names. 


CHAPTER    V. 

STATE    OF   MEXICO AREA DIVISIONS POPULATION FEDERAL 

DISTRICT VALLEY HIGHWAYS LAKES ZUMPANGO,    CRIS- 

TOVAL,     CHALCOj     XOCHIMILCO,     TEZCOCO SALT-WORKS CI- 
TIES    SAN      AUGUSTIN  FESTIVAL  TEZCOCO  TACUBA 

TOLUCA CASCADE    OF    REGLA TOWNS VALLEY     OF    CUER- 

NAVACA ACAPANTZINGO ITS    INDIAN    ISOLATION MINES    IN 

THE     STATE. 


THE    STATE    OF    MEXICO. 

This  State,  which  includes  the  national  capital  and  {lie  federal 
district,  lies  between  16°  34'  and  21°  7'  of  north  latitude  and  100°, 
17  ,  30"  and  105°,  7',  30"  W.  longitude  from  Paris.  It  is  bounded, 
west  by  the  States  of  Guanajuato  and  Michoacan ;  south-west  by 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific  for  87  leagues  ;  north  by  Queretaro ;  east 
by  Puebla  ;  and  north-east  by  Vera  Cruz.  Its  greatest  breadth 
from  east  to  west,  from  Chilapa  on  the  boundaries  of  Puebla,  to  the 
haven  of  Zacatula,  is,  104  leagues,  and  its  extreme  length  from 
north  to  south,  from  Berdosas  on  the  confines  of  Vera  Cruz,  to  the 
west  coast  in  the  neighborhood  of  Acapulco  and  the  boundary  of 
Puebla  in  that  direction,  is,  124  leagues.  The  area  of  the  State  is 
5,842  square  leagues,  more  than  two-JLhirds  of  which  are  covered 
with  mountains  and  spurs  of  mountains,  interspersed  with  vallies 
lying  between  6,500  and  7,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  JVevada  de  Toluca  is  the  only  mountain  of  extraordinary  eleva- 
tion in  the  State  of  Mexico,  which  breaks  the  uniformity  of  its  lofty 
table  lands.  Popocatepetl  and  Iztaccihuatl,  on  the  eastern  limit  of 
the  Valley  of  Mexico,  belong,  it  will  be  recollected,  to  the  State  of 
Puebla. 

The  political  divisions  consist  of  eight  districts,  with  38  partidos, 
or  cantons,  and  183  ayuntimientos  or  municipalities,  subdivided  into 
about  450  cities,  towns  and  villages,  as  well  as  into  a  great  number 
of  haciendas.,  and  minor  dependencies. 

1st.  The  district  of  Acapulco,  with  the  cantons  of  Acapulco, 
Tecpan.  Chilapa,  Tixtla,  and  13  municipalities. 


234  POPULATION FEDERAL  DISTRICT VALLEY. 

2d.  The  district  of  Cuernavaca,  with  the  cantons  of  Cuernavaca, 
Ciudad  Morelos  or  Cuautla  de  Amilpas,  and  Xonatepec,  and  17 
municipalities. 

3d.  The  district  of  Tasco,  with  the  cantons  of  Tasco,  Axuchitlan, 
Teloloapan,  Texupilco,  Sultepec,  Temascaltepec,  and  Zacualpan, 
with  18  ayuntimientos  or  municipahties. 

4th.  The  district  of  Toluca,  with  the  cantons  of  Toluca,  Ixtla- 
huaca,  Tenango,  Tenancingo,  and  25  municipalities. 

5th.  The  district  of  Tlalpam,  with  the  cantons  of  Tlalpam, 
Chaico,  Tezcoco,  Teotihuacan,  Zumpango,  Tlanepantia,  Quautitlan 
and  49  municipalities. 

6th.  The  district  of  Tula,  with  the  cantons  of  Tula,  Huichapan, 
Actopan,  Xilotepec,  Ixmiquilpan,  Zimapan,  and  25  municipalities. 

7th.  The  district  of  Tulancingo,  with  the  cantons  of  Tulancingo, 
Pachuca,  Apam,  and  15  municipalities. 

8th.  The  district  of  Huejutla,  with  the  cantons  of  Huejutla, 
Mextitlan,  Zacualtipan,  Yahualica,  and  21  municipalities. 

The  population  in  these  districts  was  estimated  in  1842,  accord- 
ing to  Miihlenpfordt,  at : 

.     *  .         .         .     101,250 

104,100 

187,444 

.         .         .  255,119 

278,800 

241,539 

128,166 

100,855 

The  call  for  congress  in  that  year  estimated  the  population  of  the 
State  at  1,389,502,  to  which  if  we  add  10  per  cent,  for  increase 
since  that  period,  we  shall  have  a  population  at  present  of  about 
1,528,452. 

The  Federal  District  includes  the  city  of  Mexico,  in  the  valley-  of 
that  name,  together  with  the  towns  and  villages  of  Tacubaya,  Cha- 
pultepec,  Santa  Fe,  Tacuba,  Guadalupe,  Azcapotzalco,  Los  Reyes, 
St.  Angel,  Mixcoac,  and  Mexicalcingo.  Its  inhabitants  may  be 
estimated  at  450,000,  —  about  200,000  of  whom  reside  in  the 
capital. 

The  Valley  of  Mexico  is  in  the  midst  of  the  ridges  of  the  Mexi- 
can Sierras,  at  a  height  of  7,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
It  is  oval  in  shape,  and  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by  porphyritic  moun- 
tains and  eminences,  from  which  the  volcanoes  of  Popocatepetl  and 
Iztaccihuatl,  shoot  up  beyond  the  region  of  eternal  snow. 


1st  District, 

2d 

"     , 

3d 

4th 

" 

5th 

6th 

"     , 

7th 

8th 

"     , 

HIGHWAYS LAKES ZUMPANGO CRISTOVAL.  235 

Its  greatest  length,  from  the  mouth  of  the  stream  of  Tenango  in 
the  lake  of  Chalco,  to  the  foot  of  the  Cerro  de  Sin6c,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  canal  Huehuetoca  is  19l  leagues,  and  its  greatest 
breadth,  from  San  Gabriel  at  Tezcoco,  to  the  sources  of  the  river 
Acapusalco  at  Quisquiluca,  is  13^  leagues.  Its  area  is  258f  square 
leagues,  23  J-  of  which  are  covered  by  lakes.  On  the  south,  east, 
and  west,  the  mountains  maintain  a  probable  average  height  of 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  while  at  the  north  their  depression  is 
considerable,  and  through  the  gaps  and  valhes  the  waters  of  the 
lakes  are  discharged  towards  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Six  great  highways  centre  in  the  capital,  and  leave  it  to  traverse 
the  principal  districts  of  the  confederacy. 

1st.  The  road  to  Acapulco  on  the  west  coast,  which  passes  out 
of  the  valley  over  its  southern  rim  of  mountains  at  the  point  known 
as  the  Cruz  del  Marquez,  about  2,284  feet  above  the  city  of  Mex- 
ico, or  9,784  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

2d.  The  road  to  Toluca,  by  Tianguillo  and  Lerma. 

3d.  The  road  to  Queretaro,  Durango,  &c.  called  El  Camino  de 
tierra  adentro^  which  leads  across  the  eminences  at  the  north  of  the 
valley,  by  an  elevation  of  about  100  feet  only  above  the  level  of  the 
lakes.  This  road  is  the  highway  for  the  internal  trade  of  Mexico 
with  the  northern  provinces. 

4th.  The  road  to  Pachuca  and  Real  del  Monte  in  the  mining 
district,  across  the  Cerro  Ventoso. 

5th.  The  road  to  Puebla,  across  Bonaventura  and  the  plains  of 
Apam. 

6th.  The  new  road  to  Puebla  and  Vera  Cruz,  by  Rio  Frio  and 
San  Martin,  across  the  northern  shoulder  of  the  volcano  of  Popoca- 
tepetl. It  greatest  elevation  is  at  the  barranca  or  ravine  of  Juanes, 
10,486  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Besides  the  two  last 
mentioned  roads  there  is  a  third,  between  the  volcanoes  of  Popoca- 
tepetl and  Iztaccihuatl,  by  Tlamanalco,  Ameca,  La  Cumbre,  and 
Cruz  del  Correo,  passing  out  of  the  valley  of  Mexico  into  those  of 
Cholula  and  Puebla. 

Five  lakes  are  embosomed  in  the  valley  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  Mexico:  — 

1st.  The  lake  of  Zumpango,  is  the  northernmost,  and  has  an  area 
of  about  1:^  square  leagues.  A  dam,  called  La  Calzada  de  la  Cruz  del 
Rey^  divides  it  into  two  basins,  the  westernmost  of  which  is  known 
as  the  Laguna  de  Zilaltepec,  and  the  easternmost,  the  Laguna  de 
Coyotepec.     It  is  26  feet  higher  than  the  mean  level  of  the  lake  of 


236  CHALCO,  XOCHIMILCO,  TEZCOCO SALT-WORKS. 

Tezcoco,  and  supplies  the  rivers  Pachuca   and   Quautitlan.     The 
little  village  of  Zumpango  lies  on  its  northern  shore. 

2d.  The  lake  of  San  Cristoval  is  immediately  south  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  is  likewise  divided  by  a  dam  into  two  basins,  the 
northern  called  the  Laguna  de  Xaltocan  and  the  southern  San  Cris- 
toval. In  the  first  of  these  divisions  are  the  villages  of  Xaltocan 
and  Toraantla,  built  upon  islands.  This  lake  is  twelve  feet  eight 
inches  higher  than  that  of  Tezcoco,  and  its  superficial  area  nearly  4 
square  leagues.     On  its  shore  lies  the  village  of  San  Cristoval. 

3d.  The  lake  of  Chalco  spreads  out  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  valley,  and  contains  the  village  of  Jico  built  on  an  island  in  its 
bosom.  It  is  divided  from  the  lake  of  Xochimilco  by  a  dam,  or  cal- 
zada,  across  which  the  road  passes  from  Tuliagualco  to  San  Fran- 
cisco Tlaltenango. 

4th.  The  lake  of  Xochimilco  is  separated,  as  we  have  described, 
from  that  of  Chalco;  both  of  these  basins  cover  a  superficial  area  of 
6^  square  leagues  ;  and  their  level,  according  to  Baron  Humboldt, 
is  3  feet  9|  inches  above  the  great  square  of  Mexico. 

5th.  The  lake  of  Tezcoco  is  that  in  which  the  ancient  city  of 
Tenochtitlan  was  built  upon  the  ■ftipot  at  present  occupied  by  the 
modern  city  of  Mexico,  whose  walls,  however,  are  now  reached  by 
a  canal  of  nearly  a  mile  in  length  from  the  western  borders  of  this 
inland  sea.  The  rivers  Teotihuacan,  Guadalupe  or  Tepeyacac, 
Papalotla  and  Tezcoco  are  voided  into  it.  The  difference  between 
its  water-mark  and  the  level  of  Mexico,  which  in  Humboldt's  time  was 
four  feet  and  one  inch  has  been  found  by  recent  measurements  to  be 
18  inches  more.  Its  superficial  extent  is  about  10  square  leagues,  and 
its  waters  are  plentifully  impregnated  with  salt,  supplying  the  mate- 
rial for  numerous  works  which  are  rudely  conducted.  A  thick  crust 
or  deposit  of  carbonate  of  soda  constantly  whitens  the  edges  of  this 
lake,  which  are  left  bare  by  the  receding  of  the  waters  after  they 
have  been  swept  over  the  leeward  shores  by  the  strong  winds  that 
occasionally  prevail  in  the  valley.  The  deepest  parts  of  the  lake  of 
Tezcoco  never  contain  more  than  from  6  to  8  feet  of  water,  while 
some  portions  are  not  covered  by  more  than  two  or  three  feet. 
There  are  two  springs  of  mineral  waters  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
capital; — one  at  Guadalupe,  three  miles  from  Mexico,  and  another 
at  El  Peiion,  a  volcanic  pustule  which  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain 
on  the  margin  of  the  lake  of  Tezcoco.  The  temperature  of  the  lat- 
ter is  quite  high. 

The  mode  in  which  the  valley  is  relieved  from  the  danger  of  in- 
undations in  consequence  of  the  rising  of  the  waters  of  the  lakes 


CITIES SAN   AUGUSTIN FESTIVAL TEZCOCO,  TACURA.    237 

has  been  already  noticed  in  a  previous  portion  of  this  work.'  The 
desague,  according  to  recent  reports,  requires  considerable  repairs 
and  improvements  for  the  future  security  of  the  capital. 

The  principal  cities,  towns  and  villages  of  this  State  are: — The 
national  and  state  capital  Mexico; — St.  Angel,  three  leagues  from 
the  capital;  —  Tacubaya,  about  equidistant  from  Mexico,  contain- 
ing a  number  of  beautiful  residences,  and  an  archiepiscopal  Palace 
surrounded  by  groves  and  gardens;  Santa  Fe,  Tlalpara  or  San 
Augustin  de  las  Cuevas,  four  leagues  south  of  the  capital,  situated 
upon  the  first  slopes  of  the  mountains,  and  filled  with  charming 
dwellings,  to  which  the  Alexicans  occasionally  retire  during  the 
warm  season.  It  is  in  this  town  that  the  festival  of  St.  Auc:ustin.is 
kept  in  the  month  of  May,  and  during  the  three  days  of  its  celebra- 
tion, Tlalpam  is  a  scene  of  gaiety  rarely  equalled  elsewhere  on  this 
continent.  Rich  and  poor  pour  out  from  the  capital  to  partake  of 
the  unrestrained  amusements  of  the  season,  and  thousands  of  dol- 
lars are  lost  at  the  gambling  table  or  in  the  cock-pit,  without  which 
no  Mexican  festival  is  considered  complete.  The  Mexican  ladies 
appear  at  the  balls  which  are  given  every  night,  or  during  the  after- 
noon, on  the  green  at  the  Calvarid,  and  vie  with  each  other  in  the 
splendor  and  variety  of  their  dresses. 

Ajusco,  is  a  village  south  of  Tlalpam:  —  Chalco,  lies  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  lake  of  that  name,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  villages  of 
Acohualpan,  Totolapan,  Tapostlan,  Jico,  Tlapacoya,  Xochimilco, 
Mexicalcingo,  Iztapalapan,  Colhuacan,  Huitzilopocho,  Itztacualco, 
Churubusco,  and  Cuyuacan,  most  of  which  are  inhabited  by  Indians 
and  Mestizos  who  supply  the  markets  of  the  capital.  The  Indians 
of  Chalco,  with  their  caballos  de  palo  or  "  wooden  horses,"  as  they 
fancifully  call  their  boats,  carry  on  an  extensive  trade  with  Mexico 
and  its  vicinity.  They  navigate  their  lake  and  the  canal  leading  to 
it  with  great  dexterity;  and  large  boats,  capable  of  containing  fifty 
or  sixty  persons,  are  almost  daily  seen  leaving  the  landings  at  Mexi- 
co in  order  to  convey  passengers  and  freight  to  the  neighboring 
country. 

Tezcoco,  lies  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  lake  of  that  name,  opposite 
Mexico,  and  at  the  distance  of  about  12  miles.  It  is  no  lonofer  a 
town  of  much  importance,  but  is  interesting  for  its  historical  asso- 
ciations and  for  the  ancient  remains  within  its  limits  and  nei^hbor- 
hood  which  will  be  subsequently  described. 

Tacuba  is  the  site  of  the  Spanish  army's  refuge  after  the  noche 
triste  or  "melancholy  night,"  during  which  Cort^z  and  his  band 

'  See  page  179,  vol.  I 


238 


TOLUCA CASCADE  OF  REGLA. 


were  driven  from  the  Aztec  capital  in  the  year  1520.  The  image 
of  the  Virgin  of  Remedios,  has  been  generally  kept  in  a  chapel  in 
this  village,  and  has  often  been  brought  to  the  capital  in  seasons 
of  danger,  distress  or  disease. 

Tlanepantla  ;  Quautitlan;  San  Tomas  ;  San  Cristoval 
Xaltocan  ;  ToNANTLA  ;  Tehuiloyuca  ;  Zumpango  ;  Huehue- 
TOCA ;  are  towns  and  villages  north  of  Mexico. 

San  Juan  de  Teotihuacan,  and  Otumba,  He  east  of  the  lake 
of  Tezcoco,  and  are  interesting  for  the  fertility  of  their  neighbor- 
hood and  for  their  antiquities. 

A  ridge  of  lofty  mountains,  west  of  the  capital,  rising  from  the 
plain  beyond  the  limits  of  Tacubaya  separates  the  valley  of  Mexico 
from  the  valley  of  Toluca,  in  which  is  found  the  town  of  Toluca 
at  the  foot  of  the  porphyritic  mountains  of  San  Miguel  Tutucuitlal- 
pillo,  at  an  elevation  of  8,606  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is 
a  beautiful  town,  celebrated  for  its  soap  and  candle  factories;  and 
the  epicures  of  hams  and  sausages,  procure  their  choicest  dainties 
from  its  neighborhood.  .  Lerma,  lies  on  the  banks  of  the  pond  from 
which  the  river  Lermj^^iprings ;  and  Istlahuaca,  twelve  leagues  from 
Toluca,  is  found  in  a  spur  of  the  same  valley. 


THE    CASCADE    OF    r>  E  G  L  A . 


TOWNS   CONTINUED VALLEY  OF   CUERNAVACA.  239 

The  elevations,  north  of  the  valley  of  Toluca,  which  separate  it 
from  the  valley  of  the  river  Tula,  vary  from  10,000  to  7,500  feet, 
and,  in  the  bosom  of  the  latter  vale,  is  found  the  town  of  Tula, 
twenty-two  leagues  north-west  of  the  capital.  It  is  regularly  built, 
on  broad  streets,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  Sunday-market,  to  which 
the  Indians  and  Mestizos  of  the  adjacent  country  flock  in  numbers. 

TuLANZiNGO  and  Apam,  are  the  chief  towns  of  the  districts;  — 
Pachuca  is  a  mining  town  8,112  feet  above  the  sea,  and,  next  to 
Tasco,  the  oldest  mineral  work  in  Mexico.  It  contains,  with  its 
suburbs  of  Pachuquillo,  about  5,000  inhabitants. 

Real  del  Monte,  is  another  minmg  town,  two  leagues  northerly 
from  Pachuca,  at  an  elevation  of  about  9,000  feet.  Its  climate  is 
cold,  and  its  extremely  rarefied  air  is  dangerous  for  lungs  unac- 
customed to  breathe  the  atmosphere  of  such  lofty  regions.  Within 
a  few  leagues  of  this  place  is  the  celebrated  Cascade  of  Regla. 

Atotonilco  el  Chico,  or  El  Chico,  is  also  a  mining  village, 
7,737  feet  above  the  sea,  4  leagues  north-west  from  Pachuca,  and 
25  north-east  from  Mexico.  It  is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  beauti- 
ful valley,  surrounded  by  high  mountains,  whose  peaks  peer  above 
the  tops  of  the  forest.  In  the  vicinity  of  Chico,  about  5  leagues 
west  and  north-west  lie  the  mines  of  Capula  and  Santa  Rosa. 

Atotonilco  el  Grande  is  a  village  7  leagues  north  of  Real  del 
Monte. 

AcTOPAN  and  Itzmicuilpan  lie  in  the  midst  of  fine  agricultural 
regions. 

ZiMAPAN,  is  a  mining  town,  about  10  leagues  north-west  of 
Itzmicuilpan,  and  42  from  Mexico,  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  wide 
and  deep  valley,  which  is  watered  by  a  copious  brook. 

San  Jose  del   Oro,  is   a  village  and-  mining  district,  north  of 

ZiMAPAN. 

Huejutla;  Mextitlan;  and  Zacualtipan,  complete  the  enumeration 
of  important  towns  or  villages  in  this  part  of  the  State. 

From  the  height  of  9,784  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the  Cruz  del 
Marquez,  the  road  descends  across  the  sierra  at  the  southern  end 
of  the  valley  of  Mexico,  into  the  valley  of  Cuernavaca,  which,  as 
we  have  already  remarked  in  the  historical  part  of  this  work,  is  a 
corruption  of  the  Aztec  "Quaunahuac."  This  broad,  beautiful  and 
rich  valley,  lying  between  three  and  four  thousand  feet  lower 
than  the  valley  of  Mexico,  winds  gradually  into  the  vallies  of 
Cuautla  and  Puebla  around  the  eastern  spurs  of  Popocatepetl,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  fruitfulness  and  salubrity  Sugar,  coffee, 
2e 


240  ACAPA.NTZiXGO ITS    INDIAN    ISOLATION. 

indigo,  and  all  the  tropical  plants  and  trees,  are  successfully  culti- 
vated, and  the  48  sugar  estates  coram-ehended  within  its  limits, 
produce  not  less  than  200,000  i&in^ed  weight  of  raw  and  refined 
sugar,  besides  50,000  barrels  of  distilled  spirits. 

The  chief  town  is  Cuernavaca,  lying  3,998  feet  above  the  Sea, 
3,426  below  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  5,786  feet  beneath  the  Cruz 
del  Marquez,  from  the  neighborhood  of  which  the  whole  panorama 
of  this  splendid  valley  bursts  upon  the  traveller.  Cuernavaca  rests 
on  a  tongue  of  land  projecting  into  the  valley  between  two  steep 
barrancas  or  ravines.  Plentifully  supplied  with  water,  and  situated 
in  the  midst  of  the  tierra  caHente^  it  is,  of  course,  buried  among 
luxuriant  foliage  which  is  never  touched  with  frost.  The  town 
may,  therelbre,  be  justly  called  a  garden,  in  whose  midst  rise  the 
picturesque  houses  of  the  townsfolk, —  the  walls  of  the  church  built 
by  Cort6z, —  and  the  dwelling  that  was  erected  during  the  Spanish 
dynasty  by  the  fortunate  miner  Laborde.  The  grounds,  attached 
to  this  edifice,  were  laid  out  with  care  and  taste.  Lakelets  spread 
out  among  the  profuse  vegetation;  bellevues  were  erected  at  every 
spot  whence  a  favorite  prospect  of  the  valley  might  be  obtained ; 
and  bowers  were  built  in  the  sha4ie?t  corners  amid  lofty  palms  or 
choice  varieties  of  native  and  exotic  plants.  Time  and  neglect 
have  done  their  work  upon  this  beautiful  structure;  but  the  vegeta- 
tion is  so  abundant  and  graceful,  that  the  ruined  portions  are  soon 
filled  up  and  concealed  by  flowers  or  leaves.  Few  spots  on  earth 
afford  a  more  agreeable  retreat  to  a  man  who  is  willing  to  pass  his 
life  in  a  tropical  climate  and  in  a  stagnant  society.  ^ 

AcAPANTziNGO  is  a  village  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cuernavaca, 
whose  Indian  inhabitants  are  remarkable  for  their  entire  separation 
from  the  rest  of  the  Mexican  population.  They  have  never  mingled 
their  blood  with  the  Spaniards  during  the  three  hundred  years  of 
foreign  dominion,  but  have  always  preserved,  intact,  their  own 
laws,  habits,  institutions,  language  and  customs.  They  work  on 
the  neighboring  plantations;  but,  with  this  exception,  refuse  all  in- 
tercourse with  the  Mexicans,  or  part  in  their  government.  The 
authorities  have  never  forced  them  to  abandon  their  secluded  sys- 
tem; but  seem  to  have  respected  their  feeble  rights,  as  the  invaders 
respected  the  republic  of  San  Marino  in  Italy  during  the  wars  that 
succeeded  the  French  revolution. 

Cacahuamilpa,  or  Cacahuawamilpa,  an  Indian  village  in 
whose  vicinity  lies  the  remarkable  cavern  of  that  name  which  winds 

'  See  chapter  on  the  agriculture  of  Mexico  for  more  extended  notices  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  valley  of  Cuernavaca 


TOWNS    CONTINUED.  241 

for  many  miles  in  the  heart  of  the  mountain,  and  is  filled  with  some 
of  the  most  curious  and  gigantic  stalagmites  and  stalactites  on  our 
continent. 

Yautepec  is  a  village  between  the  vallies  of  Cuautla  and  Cuer- 
navaca ;  and  is  celebrated  for  the  excellence  and  quantity  of  its 
tropical  fruits.  Zapotes,  bananas,  anonas,  guayavas,  pome- 
granates, pine  apples  grow  luxuriantly,  with  the  least  care  or  labor, 
and  at  least  thirty  thousand  dollars  worth  of  sweet  oranges  are 
annually  sent  from  it  to  the  market  of  Mexico. 

Cuautla  de  Amilpas,  or  Ciudad  Morelos,  is  a  town  in  the 
valley  of  that  name,  and  made  the  staunch  and  memorable  resistance 
to  the  Spaniards,  under  the  heroic  Morelos,  during  the  revolutionary 
war.  It  lies  24  leagues  S.  S.  East  from  the  Valley  of  Mexico, — 
13  east  from  Cuernavaca,  and  is  4,019  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Its  climate  and  productions  ..resemble  those  of  Cuerna- 
vaca, but  it  has  never  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  deadly 
siege.  Jh 

Passing  in  a  south-west^ly  dijf."  pi  -Ji^i^om'the  Valleys  of  Cuautla, 
Cuernavaca,  Mexico  and  Toluca,  we  ^n^^^'thc^rapi  metallic  region 
of  Tasco  which  lies  upon  tire  declivities  of  the  Sierra  Madre, 
sloping  towards  the  Pacific.  In.  this  distd'Tf  we  find  the  town  of 
Temascaltepec,  which  grew  up  in  tlie  midst  of  a  mining  country, 
formerly  rich  in  the  production  of  silver,  but  now  almost  abandoned 
for  such  purposes.  The  North  Americans  were  induced  to  advenr 
ture  largely  in  the  mines  of  this  district  immediately  after  the  revo- 
lution, but  their  capitals  were  entirely  lost  in  works  which  were 
found  to  have  been  abandoned  by  the  Spaniards  as  valueless,  long 
before  they  were  sold  by  speculators  to  companies  from  the  United 
States.  The  climate  of  Temascaltepec  is  mild  and  agreeable  ;  and, 
when  the  mines  were  productive,  it  must  have  been  an  agreeable 
residence.  The  inhabitants,  who  have  abandoned  their  former  min- 
eral speculations,  now  devote  themselves  to  the  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton shawls  and  rebozos. 

£l  Valle;  Real  del  Cristo;  Sultepec;  La  Plata;  Texu- 
piLLo  ;  Zacualpan;  Huesultepec  ;  Almoloyan  ;  Malinal- 
TENANGO  and  Tecamotepec  are  villages  in  the  vicinity  of 
Temascaltepec. 

Tasco  is  a  mining  town  and  capital  of  the  canton  or  district  of 
that  name,  5,853  feet  above  the  sea.  The  village  itself  is  not  im- 
portant, but  is  nevertheless  worthy  of  note  as  the  oldest  mining 
region  in  the  confederacy.     Soon  after  the  conquest  it  was  wrought 


242 


TOWNS     CONTINUED. 


for  tin,  which  had  been  found  in  the  neighborhood  by  the  Indians ; 
and  in  the  year  1752,  Laborde,  fully  developed  its  mineral  wealth 
in  silver. 

Extending  our  observations  further  to  the  south-west,  we  reach 
the  district  of  Acapulco,  which  is  divided  between  the  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  and  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  The  declivities  of  the  Cor- 
dillera are  cut  by  deep  vallies,  which  open  their  long  and  regular 
vistas  towards  the  ocean.  The  principal  places  in  this  part  of  the 
State  of  Mexico,  are  Chilapa,  with  4,000  inhabitants  ;  Mezcala; 
Chilpantzingo;  Mazatlan;  Apandaro,  with  3,500  inhabitants; 
Zirandaro,  and  Acapulco. 


BAY    OF    ACAPULCO. 


The  city  of  Acapulco  is  the  capital  of  its  district  and  a  port  in 
the  Pacific  in  16°  50'  29"  north  latitude,  and  102°  12'  12"  west 
longitude  from  Paris.  It  lies  in  a  bay,  19,700  yards  long,  from  East 
to  West,  protected  by  a  ring  of  granitic  hills  and  rocks,  in  which 
ships  may  easily  load.  The  entrance  to  the  bay  is  broad  ;  and  the 
anchorage  good,  but  the  water  is  not  deep.  Acapulco  was  formerly 
the  seat  of  Spanish  trade  between  Mexico  and  the  East;  but  its 


MINES    IN    THE    STATE.  243 

small  population  of  3,000  Mulattos,  Zarnbos  and  a  few  Mexicans, 
who  are  chiefly  pearl  divers,  fishermen  and  farmers,  fully  indicates 
the  decline  of  its  commerce  and  civilization. 

The  mountains  of  the  State  of  Mexico  are  rich  in  deposits  of  pre- 
cious and  base  metals.  North  and  north-east  of  the  Valley  of 
Mexico  are  the  mining  districts  and  mines  of  Real  del  Monte,  Mo- 
ran,  Atotonilco  el  Chico,  Pachuca,  El  Cardinal,  Zimapan,  Lomo 
del  Toro,  Macroni,  Pechuga,  and  San  Jose  del  Oro.  West  and 
south-west  of  the  Valley,  are  the  districts  of  Rancho  del  Oro,  Te- 
mascaltepec,  Real  del  Cristo,  Sultepec,  Zacualpan,  Tasco,  Tepan- 
titlan,  Tetela  del  Rio,  and  several  others.  These  were  all  diligently 
worked  by  the  Spaniards  prior  to  the  revolution,  but  have  not  been 
found  as  profitable  by  the  foreigners  who  undertook  their  manage- 
ment since  the  Independence  of  Mp^ija^  Ijj  the  year  1835,  num- 
bers of  British  subjects  and  Gerrfahs  termed,  companies  to  work 
these  mines,  and  although  thej-es^filts  have  been  favorable  in  some 
places,  the  greater  part  of  these  luckiest- enterprises  have  been  alto- 
gether abandoned.^  Such  has  been  "the  .sail  issue  in  most  of  the 
speculations  in  silver  mines ;  bilt  w^.'leapn  th'a^^i  native  company 
has  explored  and  worked  nniron  mine  at  thefa6t  of  the  Volcano  of 
Popocatepetl,  which  promises  to  iVpn<'  IhefllKor  their  trouble  and 
expense  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  this  useful  metal. 

'  Muhleiipfordt,  vol.  2,  p.  294. 


C  H  A  PT  E  R    VL 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE   CITV  OF  MEXICO CATHEDRAL ITS   ARCHI- 
TECTURE  AND    RICHES THE   PALACE  UNIVERSITY MARKET 

CHAMBER    OF    DEPUTIES,   ETC.  PORTALES MINERIA  LA 

MERCED  SAN      DOMINGO  CHARACTERS     AND      COSTUMES  

PASEOS ALAMEDA AQUEDUCTS PASSED     NUEVO     AND      DE 

LA   VIGA ALAMEDA DESCRIPTION  OF   IT LIFE   IN  MEXICO 

THEATRES  OPERA  DOMESTIC     LIFE  GENUINE     BUT     CAU- 
TIOUS   HOSPITALITY LEGEND    OF    THE  VIRGIN    OF    GUADALUPE. 


THE    CITY    OF    MEXICO 


A    STREET    IN    THE    CITY    OF    MEXICO. 


The  city  of  Mexico  has  generally  been  reputed  by  travellers  as 
the  most  beautiful  on  the  American  Continent.  Its  picturesque 
site,  in  the  lap  of  the  lovely  valley,  bordered  by  broad  meadows 
and  lakes,  has  doubtless  contributed  greatly  to  this  opinion,  and  it 
is,  indeed,  necessary  for  a  stranger  to  reside  for  a  long  time  within 


Q 

W 
H 

O 

o 

o 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE    CITY  OF  MEXICO CATHEDRAL.  245 

its  walls  before  he  becomes  sufficiently  disenthralled  from  the  spells 
of  climate  and  national  scenery,  in  order  to  do  justice  to  the  other 
American  capitals.  Mexico,  unquestionably,  is  the  queen  of  Spanish 
cities  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic ;  but,  in  external  taste,  in  modern 
elegance,  and  an  agreeable  combination  of  splendor  and  comfort,  it 
does  not  compare  favorably  with  the  chief  towns  in  the  United 
States. 

Built  in  regular,  square  blocks,  on  a  dead  level,  it  wants  the 
picturesque  breaks  or  abruptness,  which  are  only  found  on  inequali- 
ties of  surface.  Its  houses,  erected  around  quadrangles — with  a 
court  yard  or  patio  in  the  centre  of  each,  —  are  stern  and  massive 
edifices;  but  they  have  rather  the  air  of  castles  designed  for  defence 
or  seclusion,  than  of  habitations  whose  cheerful  portals  extend  a 
hearty  welcome  to  every  passer.  They  partake  of  the  age  in  which 
they  were  constructed,  and  of  the  traditionary  architecture  of  South- 
ern Europe.  Yet, — in  the  pellucid  air  of  these  lofty  regions, — 
with  its  iwciCiixxWj  frescoed  walls  basking  in  the  pure  sunshine,  and 
relieved  against  the  dark  background  of  surrounding  mountains  ;  — 
its  streets  filled  with  a  motly  and  picturesque  crowd; — its  towers 
and  domes  breaking  the  regulai^venness  of  the  flat  roofed  dwell- 
ings,— and  its  splendid  groves  in  the  alamedas  and  paseos, — 
Mexico  is,  indeed,  a  capital  worthy  a  great  nation,  as  well  as  of  the 
enduring  recollection  and  praise  of  every  traveller  who  visits  it. 

The  plan  of  the  city  is  as  regular  as  that  of  a  checquer  board. 
Its  straight  streets  divide  it  from  east  to  west  and  north  to  south ; 
whilst,  nearly  in  the  centre,  the  great  square  or  Plaza  spreads  out  for 
many  an  acre,  surrounded  by  the  chief  edifices  of  the  State,  the 
Corporation  or  the  Church. 

On  the  northern  portion  of  the  plaza  is  erected  —  on  the  alleged 
site  of  the  great  teocalli,  or  pyramid  tfemple  of  the  Aztecs,  —  the 
cathedral,  with  its  adjacent  Sagrario.  It  is,  externally  and  in- 
ternally, an  imposing  building  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  ;  for  although  its  architecture  is  neither  regular,  classical, 
nor  conformable  to  the  rules  of  any  distinct  order,  yet  its  massive- 
ness  and  elaborate  detail,  impart  to  it  a  certain  degree  of  effective 
grandeur.  We  have  always  found  it  impossible  to  receive,  or  im- 
part an  idea  of  architectural  beauty  or  magnificence  by  description 
alone.  The  best  writer  can  but  catalogue  dimensions  and  details, 
and  his  account  is,  therefore,  always  more  of  a  builder's  estimate  or 
bill,  than  a  picture  which  impresses  our  minds  with  a  vivid  image 
of  the  real  object.  We  turn,  therefore,  gladly  from  the  feeble  pen 
to  the  graphic  pencil,  and  refer  the  curious   reader  to  the  accurate 


246  ITS    ARCHITECTURE    AND    RICHES THE    PALACE. 

plates  which  accompany  this  volume,  for  a  better  idea  of  the  in- 
ternal and  external  appearance  of  this  sacred  edifice,  than  we  can 
convey  by  language  alone. 

Yet  there  are  parts  of  the  cathedral  to  which  even  the  pencil  can- 
not do  justice.  The  floor  of  this  magnificent  temple,  —  made  of 
loose  and  heavy  boards,  which  are  moveable  at  pleasure,  in  order 
to  allow  sepulture  beneath  them,  —  is  the  only  part  of  it  which 
seems  neglected  or  shabby.  Every  thing  else  is  gorgeous  beyond 
conception,  although  the  splendor  is  more  colonially  barbaric,  than 
nationally  classic.  Profusion  is  the  chief  characteristic.  It  seems 
as  if  the  priests  and  the  pious  worshippers  had  designed  to  heap 
up  rather  than  arrange  their  offerings  in  honor  of  the  Almighty,  and 
as  if  their  piles  of  precious  metals  would  form  the  most  graceful  as 
well  as  grateful  emblem  of  their  religious  sincerity.  In  the  wilder- 
ness of  columns,  statues,  shrines,  oratories,  altars  and  fonts,  the 
traveller  stands  amazed  and  confused ;  and  leaving  the  pictures  of 
the  church  to  demonstrate  its  complete  effect,  he  retreats  upon  the 
metallic  standards  which  surround  him,  in  order  to  convey  the  best 
estimate  of  this  queen  of  American  temples. 

The  exterior  walls  front  upwaijj^s  of  four  hundred  feet  on  the 
plaza,  and  run  back  about  five  hundred  feet  to  the  narrow  street  of 
Tacuba.  Entering  the  main  portal,  whilst  the  huge  bells  are 
clanging  in  the  two  steeples  above  it,  you  face  the  choir  for  the 
clergy,  which  is  built  of  rare,  carved  woods,  and  elaborately  covered 
with  gilded  images,  whose  burnished  surface  flashes  in  the  sunlight. 
Beyond  this  is  the  high  altar,  raised  from  the  floor  on  an  elevated 
platform,  and  covered  with  ornaments,  crosses,  and  candle-sticks, 
wrought  in  the  precious  metals.  From  this  sanctuary,  —  extend- 
ing around  the  choir,  and  probably  near  two  hundred  feet  in  length, 
—  runs  a  railing,  between  four  and  five  feet  high,  and  proportionally 
massive,  composed  of  gold  and  silver  very  slightly  alloyed  with 
copper.  And  on  the  summit  of  the  high  altar  rests  the  figure  of 
the  Virgin  of  Remedios,  whose  dowry  in  dresses,  diamonds,  emer- 
alds and  pearls  is  estimated  at  not  less  than  three  millions  of  dollars. 

On  the  east  of  the  cathedral,  fronting  the  west,  and  bounding  the 
whole  eastern  limit  of  the  plaza,  is  the  national  palace,  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  viceroys,  and  now  occupied  by  the  president,  as  a 
dwelling.  It  is  an  immense  quadrangular  building,  constructed  on 
the  ground  which  it  is  supposed  was  covered  by  the  palace  of  Ax- 
ayacatl,  in  which  Cortez  was  lodged  by  Montezuma,  when  he  first 
arrived  in  the  Aztec  capital.  Besides  affording  room  for  the  pre- 
sident and  his  family,  this  huge  edifice   contains  all  the  offices  of 


UNIVERSITY MARKET CHAMBER  OF   DEPUTIES. 


247 


the  several  secretaries  of  state  ;  the  general  treasury  and  tribunal  of 
accounts  ;  the  supreme  court ;  the  headquarters  of  the  general-in- 
chief;  the  two  chambers  of  deputies  and  the  senate,  both  of  which 
are  elegant  apartments,  and,  especially  that  of  the  deputies  ;  —  two 
barracks  for  infantry,  cavalry,  and  a  park  of  artillery ;  —  two 
prisons  ;  some  shops  ;  a  botanical  garden  ;  and  the  mint.  South  of 
the  National  Palace,  but  not  fronting  the  plaza,  are  the  University, 
containing  the  National  Museum,  in  front  of  which  is  the  magnifi- 
cent modern  market,  built  during  the  administration  of  Santa  Anna 
in  1842. 


,^ 


fll  »i^i'tl^^^ 


2li;    J 


THE    CHAMBER    OF     DEPUTIES. 


Directly  opposite  the  fa9ade  of  the  cathedral,  in  the  south-eastern 
corner  of  the  plaza,  is  the  Casa  Municipal,  or  City  Hall,  which  is  oc- 
cupied partly  by  the  corporate  authorities,  and  partly  by  the  mer- 
chants' Lonja,  or  exchange.  On  the  western  side  of  the  square 
there  are  no  public  buildings  ;  but  the  palace  of  Cortez,  which  was 
erected  by  the  conqueror  and  rebuilt  and  still  ow^ned  by  his  de- 
scendants, covers  a  portion  of  its  front  and  deserves  to  be  mentioned 
for  its  associations  if  not  for  its  architectural  beauty.  The  whole 
of  the  side  walks  on  the  southern  part  of  the  plaza,  and  a  portion  of  the 
2f 


248 


PORTALES MINERIA LA    MERCED. 


western,  beyond  the  Calle  Plateros,  or  street  of  the  silversmiths,  are 
protected  by  a  broad  and  massive  corridor  or  portico,  called  the 
portales,  in  which  the  traveller  will  constantly  find  crowds  of 
hawkers,  pedlars,  shopmen,  letter  writers,  clothiers,  fruit  sellers, 
liquor  venders,  crockery  dealers  and  book  hucksters.  A  few  squares 
west  of  the  plaza,  is  situated  the  magnificent  palace  of  the  Mineria, 
or  School  of  Mines,  one  of  the  most  elegant  edifices  in  the  capitah 


COLLEGE    OF    MINES  — (EXTERIOR.) 


In  noticing  the  general  splendour  and  luxury  of  ecclesiastical 
architecture  in  Mexico  we  should  not  omit  to  mention  particularly 
the  beautiful  convent  of  La  Merced,  a  view  of  whose  elegant  in- 
terior court  and  corridor  is  presented  in  the  opposite  plate.  Gloomier 
recollections,  however,  are  conjured  up  from  the  past  by  beholding 
the  church  of  San  Domingo  and  the  neighboring  inquisition,  which 
was  the  prison  and  the  place  of  torture  to  so  many  unfortunate  vic- 
tims during  the  viceroyal  government  of  New  Spain. 

It  is,  in  the  centre  or  heart  of  the  city,  that  all  the  characteristic 
habits  and  costumes  of  the  people  may  be  most  readily  observed. 
The  great  body  of  the  crowd  is,  of  course,  composed  of  the  common 
classes — the  males  in  their  shirts  and  trowsers,  with  a  blanket  thrown 


SAN    DOMINGO CHARACTERS    AND    COSTUMES. 


249 


over  their  shoulders,  and  the  females  in  chemise  and  closely  cinc- 
tured petticoat  of  fanciful  colors,  whilst  their  heads,  and  thinly  clad 
bosoms,  are  folded  and  partly  concealed  in  their  graceful  rcbozos. 
Then  there  are  the  wretched  leperos,  whose  long  and  tangled  hair 
falls  in  wierd  strands  over  their  tawny  necks  and  dirty  brows,  be- 
neath which  flash  the  sharp  black  eyes  that  are  constantly  on  the 
watch  for  something  to  do,  to  drink,  to  eat,  or  to  steal.  In  the 
neighborhood  of  the  pulquerias  or  liquor  shops,  crowds  of  these 
social  vermin  swarm  and  sleep. 


CHURCH    OF    SAN    DOMINGO    AND    THE    INQUISITION 


Pushing  his  way,  eagerly  and  industriously  through  the  crowd, 
the  laborious  aguador,  or  water  carrier  elbows  his  w^ay,  as  he  trots 
his  rounds  to  fulfil  his  daily  task  with  his  twin  jars  of  the  refreshing 
fluid,  one  of  which  he  bears  upon  his  back,  suspended  by  a  strap 
around  his  brow,  and  balanced  by  another  which  depends  from  a 
leathern  thong,  which  rests  upon  the  back  of  his  head.  Hard  by 
the  aguador,  appear  the  carbonero,  or  coal  dealer,  —  the  poultry 
seller,  —  the  crockery  pedlar,  or  the  porter,  —  all  of  whom  bear 
their  burdens  on  their  shoulders,  and  move  along  in  that  ambling 
trot  which  is  neculiar  to  the  laborers  and  Indians  of  Mexico.     Large 


250  CHARACTERS    AND    COSTUMES. 

numbers  of  women  with  oranges,  pears,  potatoes,  tomatoes,  onions, 
lemons,  guyavas,  aguacates,  chirimoyas,  plantains,  fish  and  eggs, 
swell  the  increasing  crowds.  The  butcher  drives  along  a  diminu- 
tive donkey,  on  whose  saddle  he  has  erected  his  peripatetic  sham- 
bles, filled  with  beef  or  mutton,  whilst,  at  the  corners  and  on  the 
edge  of  the  side  walks,  sit  long  rows  of  Indian  women  with  pans 
of  savory  chile  sauces  and  heaping  baskets  or  cloths  of  steaming 
tortillas.  All  these  eager  venders  of  the  necessaries  and  luxuries 
of  life,  engage  public  attention  by  shouting  the  quality  and  value  of 
their  wares  at  the  top  of  their  voices.  Sound  and  motion  are  the 
predominant  features  of  the  varied  panorama ;  and  the  stunned 
stranger  is  glad  to  retreat  into  quiet  nooks  and  byeways  in  which 
he  meets  the  stately  gentlewoman  and  cavalier,  dressed  in  the  be- 
coming habiliments  of  their  station.  When  ladies  go  abroad  in 
Mexico  to  shop  or  visit,  they  universally  use  their  coaches;  yet 
every  woman  d7:a\y  loalks  to  mass, —  and,  whilst  engaged  in  this 
religious  pilgrimage,  exhibits  the  old  and  habitual  costume  of  black 
silk  gown  and  lace  mantilla,  which  she  has  derived  from  her 
Spanish  ancestors.  This  is  a  charming  dress.  It  exposes  the 
black,  lustrous  hair  of  the  graceful  wearers,  and  fully  develops 
that  majestic  yet  feminine  gait  with  which  the  Mexican  women 
seem  to  glide  and  undulate  along  their  path.  The  inseparable  fan, 
—  her  constant  companion,  plaything  and  interpreter,  in  the  sa- 
loon, the  ball  room,  the  theatre  or  the  church, — rests  carelessly,  in 
her  right  hand,  which  coquettishly  clasps  the  folds  of  her  mantilla ; 
and,  from  beneath  its  silken  folds,  her  large  lustrous  eyes  gleam 
soft  and  languishingly  above  her  pale  but  healthful  cheeks.  If 
Mexican  ladies  are  not  so  variously  beautiful  as  the  women  of 
northern  lands,  in  whose  veins  the  blood  of  many  nations  has 
mingled,  they  are  most  loveable  creatures  in  spite  of  the  uniformity 
of  their  national  type.  There  is  a  degree  of  exquisite  tenderness, 
and  an  expression  of  affectionate  sincerity,  in  the  face  of  Mexican 
women,  w^hich  instantly  wins  not  only  the  respect  but  the  confidence 
of  the  gazer.  Nor  does  their  character  in  real  life  contradict  their 
amiable  physiognomy.  Faithful  as  a  friend  and  as  a  wdfe,  the 
Mexican  lady  is  a  person,  who,  with  the  educational  advantages 
enjoyed  by  their  northern  sisters,  w^ould  rightfully  maintain  as  high 
a  position  in  the  social  scale,  with,  perhaps,  a  more  delicate  degree 
of  sensibility. 

The  lower  classes  of  females  are  of  course  different  from  the  up- 
per ranks  both  in  appearance  and  personal  qualities.  They  are  of 
impure    blood.     Spaniard,  Indian,  Negro    and  Malay,  have  con- 


/  / 


PASSEOS ALAMEDA AQUEDUCTS. 


251 


tributed  to  their  ancestral  pedigree,  and  their  race  is  consequently 
mixed ;  yet,  impure  as  they  are  by  descent  they  have  not  failed,  like 
all  imitative  inferiors  to  catch  the  manners  and  bearing  of  the  aris 
tocracy.  There  is  hardly  a  Mexican  girl, — whose  whole  wardrobe 
consists  of  her  chemise,  petticoat,  rebozo,  comb,  looking-glass  and 
shoes,  —  who  does  not  move  along  the  street,  when  in  full  dress, 
with  the  queenly  step  and  coquettish  display  of  eye  and  hair  from 
beneath  her  cotton  rebozo,  which  we  have  just  admired  in  the  Mexi- 
can dona. 

The  costume  of  Mexican  gentlemen  is  the  usual  European  dress 
worn  by  the  same  class  among  northern  nations.  But,  in  addition, 
the  broad  folds  of  a  massive  cloak  are  always  thrown  over  their 
shoulders  upon  the  slightest  pretext  or  provocation  of  the  weather, 
whilst  their  nostrils  are  constantly  refreshed  by  the  fragrant  fumes 
of  a  cigar  or  cigaritto. 

The  city  of  Mexico  possesses  two  magnificent  Passeos  and  an 
Jilameda  in  which  all  classes  of  the  people  habitually  recreate  them- 
selves. The  city  is  supplied  with  water  by  splendid  aqueducts, 
bringing  the  limpid  streams  from  the  neighboring  hills. 


TERMINATrON   OF   AQUEDUCT   IN  CITY   OF   MEXICO. 

The  Passeo  JVuevo  lies  west  of  ihe  city  towards  Chapultepec  anci 
Tacubaya.  It  is  a  broad  avenue,  laid  out  tastefully  amid  the  be;ii!- 
tiful  meadows  that  surround  the  city,  and  is  broken  at  intervals  liy 
fountains  of  stone,  and  shaded  by  rows  of  stately  trees.     When  tiie 


252  PASSEO    NUEVO    AND    DE    LA    VIGA ALAMED. 

weather  is  fine,  whicli  it  usually  is  for  six  or  eight  months  of  the 
year,  the  disengaged  people  pour  out  to  this  gay  resort,  near 
sunset,  on  foot,  in  coach,  or  on  horseback,  to  enjoy  the  refreshing 
breeze  and  to  greet  each  other  on  this  social  exchange.  The  Passeo 
is  broad  enough  to  allow  several  coaches,  to  drive  abreast  if  need- 
ful, but  the  course  is  usually  occupied  by  only  two  lines  of  ad- 
vancing and  returning  carriages  or  horsemen.  This  promenade 
})arade  circulates  up  and  down  the  highway  for  an  hour;  but  when 
the  evening  bells  toll  for  oracion,  every  hat  is  raised  for  a  moment 
and  every  horse's  head  immediately  turned  homewards. 

The  Pnsseo  de  la  Viga,  is  on  the  other  side  of  the  city,  and  is 
preferred  by  many  persons  to  the  Passeo  JWievo.  It  skirts  one  of 
the  canals  leading  to  the  lake  of  Chalco,  and  affords  the  stranger  an 
opportunity  of  observing  the  crowds  of  Indians  who  linger  along  the 
banks,  or  push  off  at  evening  in  their  boats,  crowned  with  flowers 
and  strumming  their  guitars  if  the  day  happens  to  be  one  of  festivity. 

This  Passeo  was  constructed  under  the  viceroyalty  of  Revilla-Gi- 
gedo,  whose  improvements  of  the  city  and  neighborhood  of  Mexico 
have  contributed  so  greatly  to  the  elegance  and  beauty  of  the 
c;i])ital. 


T  HE    A  L  A  ,M  E  U  A     F  O  U  N  'J'  A  I  N 


The  Alameda  is  a  beautiful  grove  of  lofty  forest  trees  planted  in 
a  rich  soil  in  the  western  section  of  the  city  and  on  the  road  to  the 


DESCRIPTION    OF    IT LIFE    IN    MEXICO.  253 

Passeo  Nuevo.  It  occupies  a  space  of  ten  or  twelve  acres,  enclosed 
by  a  substantial  stone  wall,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  deep  and 
flooded  moat.  The  gates  are  closed  daily  at  the  Oracion ;  and  the 
spot  is  thus  protected  carefully  from  all  improper  uses  as  w^ell  as  from 
wanton  destruction.  Around  the  whole  of  the  inner  wall,  lines  of 
substantial  stone  seats  are  erected,  and,  in  front  of  them,  an  excellent 
carriage  road  affords  a  drive  for  those  w^ho  are  not  disposed  to  min- 
gle in  the  gayer  circle  of  the  passeos.  Within  this  highway  the 
plantations  begin.  Paved  paths  cross  and  recross  the  dense  groves 
in  a  labyrinth  of  lines,  while,  at  intervals,  fountains  and  secluded 
benches  break  the  uniform  solemnity  and  quietness  of  the  spot.  In 
the  centre  of  the  enclosure  a  massive  fountain,  surmounted  by  a 
gilded  statue  of  Liberty,  rises  nobly  in  the  midst  of  a  broad  area, 
whose  top  is  almost  domed  with  the  arching  branches  of  the  trees, 
which  admit  a  scant  but  lovely  light  through  a  narrow  aperture,  like 
the  sky-light  of  the  pantheon  at  Rome.  The  birds,  unassailed  for 
years  within  this  grove,  have  flown  to  it  as  a  sanctuary,  and  the 
branches  are  forever  vocal  with  their  natural  music.  Situated  as  it 
is  on  the  edge  of  the  town,  and  surrounded  by  houses,  it  neverthe- 
less seems  buried  in  the  depths  of  a  forest ;  and  perhaps  no  spot,  in 
America,  is  so  fitted  for  the  enjoyment  of  a  quiet  man,  who  can 
either  take  his  exercise  on  foot  or  horseback,  beneath  the  shelterincr 
trees,  or  wile  away  his  hours  with  book  and  pencil  on  the  com- 
fortable seats  in  the  shady  woods.  It  is  the  favorite  resort  in  the 
morning  of  all  classes  who  are  obliged  to  rise  betimes  and  go  abroad 
for  health.  Students,  priests,  monks,  lovers,  loungers,  dyspeptics, 
consumptives,  nurses,  and  troops  of  lovely  children  resort  to  the 
Alameda  as  soon  as  the  gates  are  opened,  and  study,  meditate,  pray, 
flirt,  exercise,  or  romp,  until  their  appetites  or  the  sun  warn  them 
of  the  flight  of  time. 

In  these  drives,  in  dress,  dining,  domestic  duties,  mass,  and  thea- 
tre the  hours  of  a  Mexican's  day  are  chiefly  consumed.  This  cata- 
logue of  "  idle  occupations,"  does  not,  of  course  comprise  all 
classes,  but  includes  that  portion  of  the  aristocracy  which  is  every 
where  set  apart  by  its  fortunate  exemption  from  necessary  toil.  In 
a  country  so  rich  as  Mexico  this  class  must  necessarily  be  large; 
and,  if  it  begins  the  day  in  plain  black,  and  on  its  knees  in  chapels, 
it  ends  its  waking  hours  amid  the  blaze  of  dress  and  jewels  in  the 
family  box  in  the  theatre.  In  most  of  the  countries  of  southern 
Europe,  and  in  all  their  old  colonial  possessions,  the  theatre  is  one 
if  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  a  box  is  as  indispensable  as  a  dwell- 
ing.    It  forms  a  neutral  ground  upon  which  all  can  meet  without  the 


THEATRES 


OPERA. 


requirements  of  a  forced  hospitality,  and  consequently  it  affords  all 
the  pleasures  of  general  society  without  the  necessity  of  expensive 
entertainment.  There  are  great  disadvantages  attending  upon  this 
constant  dvi^elling  in  the  public  eye  and  in  the  blaze  of  artificial 
hght;  y^t  it  is  so  agreeable  a  mode  of  killing  time  in  Mexico,  that 
the  habits  or  the  nature  of  the  people  must  change  essentially  be- 
fore we  may  expect  to  find  them  surrounding  nightly  the  domestic 
hearth  instead  of  the  dramatic  stage.  Yet  we  should  not  be  unjust 
to  the  Mexicans  in  this  condemnation  of  one  of  their  agreeable 
habits,  which  originates  perhaps  as  much  in  their  chmate  as  in  their 
tastes.  Fine  skies  and  genial  atmospheres  drive  people  into  the 
open  air.  Wintry  winds,  desolate  heaths,  ice  and  snow,  gather 
and  group  them  into  the  nestling  places  of  home.  When  houses 
become  in  this  way  mere  shelters  instead  of  shrines  we  might  well 
pardon  the  taste  which  leads  a  sensitive  people  to  enjoy  the  beauti- 
ful landscape  as  long  as  day  permits  it  to  be  seen,  or  to  retreat,  at 
nightfall,  into  those  splendid  theatres  in  which  they  may  behold  the 
mimi(.'  representation  of  that  varied  activity  of  life  to  which  their 
monotonous  career  is  a  comparative  stranger. 


i\  L  \v     1  U  L  A  J  u  n . 


Nevertheless,  a  well-bred  .Mexican  family  is  one  of  the  most  de- 
lightful circles  into  which  a  genteel  stranger  can  be  admitted.     The 


DOMESTIC    LIFE. 


255 


formal  manners  of  the  Spaniards  have  descended  to  the  Mexicans. 
You  are  received  cordially  but  carefully,  and  you  must  either  be 
useful  or  know7i,  before  you  are  admitted  into  the  confidence  of  a 
family.  Until  this  occurs  your  reception  and  departure  from  a 
Mexican  dwelling  are  quite  as  ceremonious  as  your  initiation  into  a 
Masonic  lodge.  Bows,  gestures,  shrugs,  grimaces,  and  all  the  or- 
dinary rites  of  external  politeness  are  plentifully  bestowed  on  the 
stranger;  —  "But  sad  is  the  plight  of  the  luckless  knight,"  who 
imagines  that  these  elegant  formalities  literally  mean  what  they 
profess.  Americans,  especially,  whose  extraordinary  and  loose  so- 
cial facilities  habituate  them  to  an  unrestrained  intercourse  with  all 
the  members  of  families  as  soon  as  they  are  either  prudently  or  im- 
prudently introduced  to  them,  —  are  often  in  danger  of  making  this 


/  ./  .  y :./'■'  /■  /    / ■  / 

WMMM/^/%j/ 

y\/\//v/\,7\/  s  v^  ,r\ 

"'""'^ 

INTERIOR    OF    A    MEXICAN    HOUSE. 

sad  mistake  in  Mexico.  Neither  wealth,  education,  nor  political 
position,  entitle  an  individual  in  that  republic  to  pass  the  threshold 
of  distant  and  civil  intercourse.  The  Mexican's  house,  purse,  or 
daughter,  are  not  at  "your  disposal,"  although  he  tells  you  that 
2o 


256 


GENUINE    BUT    CAUTIOUS    HOSPITALITY. 


everything  he  possesses  is  "a  la  disposicion  de  listed!''''  Yet, 
when  his  acquaintance  has  ripened  into  friendship,  and  he  under- 
stands that  you  appreciate  his  tastes,  his  country,  his  language,  his 
prejudices,  his  religion,  and  his  habits,  or  do  not  visit  him,  as  many 
foreigners  have  done,  merely  to  scoff  and  condemn, — then,  indeed, 
the  social  manners  of  the  Mexican  relax  into  intimacy,  and  the 
attention  he  bestows  on  you  may  be  more  firmly  trusted  because  it 
was  so  cautiously  yielded.  The  stranger  who  penetrates  a  Mexican 
;*house  under  such  circumstances,  finds  its  hospitality  unbounded, 
and  its  generous  inmates  his  devoted  and  faithful  servants  either  for 
life  or  until  he  forfeits  their  esteem  by  treachery  or  misconduct. 


THE    VIRGIN    op    GUADALUPE. 

In  every  Mexican  church,  monastery,  convent,  palace,  house, 
hut,  hovel,  hacienda,  or  rancho,  the  traveller  will  not  fail  to  observe 
an  image  of  "  The  Virgin  of  Guadalupe."  Many  men  receive  the 
name  of  "Guadalupe,"  in  baptism,  and  almost  every  woman  has  it 
added  to  the  others  she  receives  from  her  parents  or  sponsors.  A 
saint  whose  tutelary  influence  is  at  once  so  national  and  so  curious 
•deserves  especial  mention  in  the  notice  of  a  country  over  whose 
people  she  is  supposed  to  exercise  a  mysterious  dominion ;  and  we 
■therefore  present  the  reader  the  following  translation  from  the  Span- 


LEGEND    OF    THE    VIRGIN    OF    GUADALUPE.  257 

ish  of  Don  Ignacio  Barillo  y  Perez,  in  which  the  history  of  her 
miraculous  appearance  is  set  forth  with  more  detail  than  we  have 
elsewhere  encountered. 

The  story  of  the  Virgin  is  implicitly  believed  by  the  great  mass 
of  the  people ;  and  the  wonderful  picture,  described  in  the  following 
account,  adorned  with  invaluable  precious  stones,  is  now  preserved 
in  a  massive  golden  frame,  in  the  collegiate  church  of  Guadalupe 
erected  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  of  Tepeyacac.  On  the  12th  of  every 
December,  the  anniversary  of  the  miraculous  visit,  the  people  poui 
forth  from  the  capital  to  the  sacred  shrine  and  witness  the  splen  • 
did  rites  instituted  in  honor  of  the  saint.  In  the  temple  and  at 
the  holy  well,  they  are  met  by  crowds  of  country  folks  and  Indians, 
who  come  from  far  and  near  on  the  same  errand,  while  the  whole 
pompous  ceremonial  is  countenanced  by  the  presence  and  apparent 
devotion  of  all  the  high  officers  of  government  including  the  presi- 
dent himself.  ^ 

Legend  of  the  Apparition  of  the  Most  Holy  Virgin  Mary 
OF  Guadalupe;  the  Patron  Saint  and  Protectress  of 
Mexico. 

Tepeyacac  is  a  small  mountain  whose  southern  side  is  a  scarped 
and  inaccessible  precipice  which  looks  to  Mexico,  situated  on  the 
south  of  it  at  the  distance  of  about  three  miles.  Its  ascent,  by 
whatever  part  undertaken,  except  that  of  the  pathways  made  to  fa- 
cilitate the  access,  is  extremely  rough  'and  stony.  Its  whole  surface 
is  covered  with  crowsfeet,  buck  and  hawthorn,  which  are  common 
to  such  sterile  wastes.  The  Indian  name,  Tepeyacac,  signifies  the 
abrupt  extremity  or  termination  of  hills,  and  in  this  bluif,  terminate 
all  the  hills  to  the  north  of  the  capital.  - 

It  was  celebrated  in  the  days  of  heathenism  for  the  worship  paid 
in  this  place  to  the  mother  of  the  false  gods  of  the  Indians,  but 
it  is  more  celebrated  at  present  for  the  adoration  which  is  worthily 
paid  to  the  Mother  of  the  true  God  in  her  beautiful  temple. 

As  Juan  Diego,  —  an  Indian  recently  converted,  of  pure  and 
unblemished  morals,  though  of  lowly  birth,  was  passing  by  this 
place  on  Saturday,  December  9th,  1531,  on  his  way  to  hear  mass 
and  participate  in  the  Christian  worship  which  the  Franciscan 
fathers  taught  in  the  district  of  Tlatelolco,  at  the  hour  of  early  dawn, 
he  heard,  upon  attaining  the  brow  of  the  little  mountain,  which  he 

'  See  also,  •'Mexico  as  it  was  and  as  it  is"  —  p.  63,  for  a  full  account  of  the  cere- 
monies of  the  Collegiate  church,  and  of  Archbishop  Lorenzano's  sermon,  preached 
in  1760,  confirming  the  miraculous- history. 


258  LEGEND    OF    THE 

was  ascending  on  the  western  side,  a  sweet,  sonorous  and  harmo 
nious  music,  as  of  little  birds  upon  its  summit.  The  ravishing  tones 
and  rare  melody  attracted  his  attention  and  arrested  his  steps.  On 
looking  up,  as  was  natural,  he  saw  a  white  and  shining  cloud,  sur- 
rounded by  a  rainbow,  and  in  its  centre  a  most  beautiful  lady,  like 
the  image  we  now  venerate  in  the  sanctuary,  who  calling  with  a 
sweet  and  gentle  voice,  addressed  him  in  his  own  language  with 
wonderful  suavity  and  told  him  she  was  the  Virgin  Mary,  Mother  of 
God,  whose  mass  and  doctrine  he  was  going  to  hear,  and  she  com- 
manded him  to  go  to  the  bishop  and  tell  him  that  it  was  her  will 
that  a  temple  should  be  built  to  her  upon  that  spot,  in  which  she 
would  show  herself  a  pious  mother  towards  him,  his  nation,  devo- 
tees, and  as  many  as  should  solicit  her  support  and  protection  in 
their  hour  of  need.  She  directed  him  to  tell  all  he  had  seen  and 
heard,  and  added  :  '  Be  sure,  my  son,  for  whom  I  feel  a  delicate  and 
tender  love,  that  I  will  repay  all  you  do  for  me;  I  will  render  you 
famous;  and  I  will  endow  you  with  benefits  for  the  diligence  and 
labor  you  display.  Now,  my  servant,  in  whom  I  delight,  thou  hast 
heard  my  desire,  go  thou  in  peace.' 

The  Indian  promptly  obeyed  and  went  to  the  palace  of  the 
bishop,  the  illustrious  Senor  Don  Francisco  de  Zumarraga,  who 
since  the  year  1528,  had  resided  in  Mexico  with  the  title  of  Protec- 
tor of  the  Indians,  and  who  afterwards  became  the  archbishop.  The 
prelate  heard  him  with  surprise,  and  prudently  directed  him  to  re- 
turn on  some  other  occasion,  when  having  well  considered  and  ex- 
amined into  so  singular  an  event,  he  might  deliberate  as  to  what  was 
proper  to  be  done  by  him. 

The  Indian  returned  with  the  answer  to  the  Most  Holy  Virgin 
whom  he  found  in  the  same  place.  Prostrating  himself  before  her, 
with  words  of  submission  peculiar  to  the  Indians,  he  repeated  the  reply 
of  the  bishop,  adding  that,  in  order  to  secure  compliance  with  her 
will,  it  would  be  necessary  to  send  some  person  of  authority  and 
credit,  as  it  appeared  to  him  he  was  not  believed  because  he  was  an 
humble  man  and  a  plebeian.  The  Most  Holy  Virgin,  with  no  less 
benignity  and  suavity  than  on  the  previous  occasion,  replied :  '  To 
me  neither  servants  nor  followers  whom  to  send  are  wanting  if  I 
should  wish,  since  I  have  multitudes  at  my  command ;  but  it  is 
agreeable  to  me  now  that  thou  shouldst  perform  this  mission,  and 
make  the  solicitation.  Through  your  intervention  I  wish  to  give 
effect  to  my  will,  and  desire  you  to  speak  again  with  the  bishop, 
and  tell  him  he  must  build  a  temple  in  honor  of  me  on  this  spot ; 
and  that  it  is  the  Most  Holy  Virgin  Mary,  Mother  of  the  true  God, 


VIRGIN    OF    GUADALUPE.  259 

\vlio  sends  you  to  him.'  Juan  Diego  answered :  '  Do  not  be  of- 
fended, my  Queen  and  Holy  Lady,  at  what  I  have  said,  which  is 
not  intended  to  excuse  me  from  this  office.'  Desiring  to  satisfy  the 
Most  Holy  Virgin,  although  fearful  the  bishop  w^ould  not  give  credit 
to  his  story,  he  pledged  himself  to  repeat  the  message  the  next  day; 
and  promised,  that  at  the  setting  of  the  sun,  he  would  be  at  that 
spot  once  more  with  the  reply.  Bidding  adieu  to  the  bless'^d  appa- 
rition with  profound  humility,  he  went  to  his  village  and  his  house, 
but  it  is  not  known  whether  he  mentioned  to  his  wife,  or  other 
person,  his  strange  adventure. 

The  following  day,  Sunday,  December  10th,  1531,  Juan  Diego 
•went  again  to  hear  mass  and  participate  in  the  Christian  worship. 
Upon  the  conclusion  of  the  service,  he  went  diligently  to  discharge 
his  mission,  and  although  the  servants  of  the  bishop  delayed  him  a 
long  time  at  the  entrance  of  the  palace,  he  succeeded  at  length  in 
coming  into  the  prelate's  presence.  With  lively  expressions  of 
feeUng,  which  made  that  dignitary  shed  tears  of  tender  pleasure,  he 
prostrated  himself  before  the  bishop,  and  told  him  he  had  a  second 
time  seen  the  Mother  of  God,  w'ho  commanded  him  to  return  and 
repeat  that  it  was  her  will  a  temple  should  be  built  in  honor  of  her 
on  the  spot  at  which  she  appeared.  The  bishop  listened  with  great 
attention,  and  examined  him  with  many  questions,  in  the  answers 
to  which  he  could  detect  no  discrepancy  ;  and,  in  fine,  knowing  it 
could  neither  be  a  dream  nor  fiction  of  the  Indian,  he  told  him  that 
what  he  had  said  W' as  not  sufficient  to  ensure  credibility ;  that  he 
must  ask  some  sign  from  the  Holy  Lady,  by  which  it  might  be 
known  that  it  was  really  the  Mother  of  God  who  sent  him. 

The  Indian,  with  intrepid  confidence,  replied  that  he  would  ask 
whatever  the  bishop  desired ;  when  the  latter,  observing  that  he  was 
not  abashed,  but  offered  to  ask  for  the  signs,  ordered  him  to  go,  but, 
meanwhile,  secretly  despatched  two  confidential  members  of  his 
family  to  follow  the  Indian,  and  to  observe  with  whom  Juan  Diego 
spoke  on  his  arrival  at  the  hill  of  Tepeyacac.  They  did  so;  but 
when  they  arrived  at  the  bridge  OA^er  the  river  that  empties,  at  the 
foot  of  the  hill,  into  the  lake  which  lies  to  the  east  of  Mexico, 
the  Indian  disappeared  from  the  spies  who  were  watching  him. 
They  examined  the  summit,  brow,  and  circumference  of  the  hiU, 
without  failing,  in  their  anxious  solicitude,  to  explore  every  ravine, 
fissure,  and  fragment  of  it,  but  not  finding  him  in  any  part,  they  con- 
cluded that  the  native  was  a  deceitful  impostor,  and  confirmed  in 
that  idea,  they  returned  to  the  bishop,  begging  him  to  punish  the 
Indian  if  he  repeated  his  imposition. 


260  LEGEND  OF  THE 

As  soon  as  Juan  Diego,  who  was  in  advance  of  the  servants, 
arrived  at  the  top  of  the  hill,  he  found  there  the  Most  Blessed  Mary 
awaiting  the  prelate's  answer.  Pleased  with  his  attention  and 
promptitude,  she  directed  him  to  return  the  next  day,  when  she 
would  give  him  a  sign  that  would  ensure  credibility  with  the  bishop. 
The  Indian  promised  to  do  so,  but  he  could  not  comply  with  the 
mandate  of  Our  Lady,  to  return  the  next  day,  December  11  th,  1531, 
as  he  found  on  reaching  home  that  his  uncle,  Juan  Bernardino  who 
held  the  place  of  father  in  his  affections,  had  fallen  ill  of  a  malig- 
nant fever,  which  the  Indians  call  cacolixtli,  on  which  account  he 
was  detained  that  day  in  administering  to  him  some  simples  used 
by  the  Indians,  all  of  which,  however,  he  applied  without  avail.  At 
length,  the  infirmity  assumed  a  fatal  character,  and  the  patient  asked 
Juan  Diego  to  call  in  a  priest,  from  whom  he  might  receive  the 
Holy  Sacrament  and  Extreme  Unction. 

The  12th  of  the  same  month,  before  the  dawn  of  day,  Juan 
Diego  set  out  for  the  Confessor,  but  on  approaching  the  mountain 
near  the  place  where  he  had  seen  and  spoken  to  the  Most  Holy  Vir- 
gin, foreseeing  that  she  might  blame  him  for  his  want  of  care  in  not 
havmg  returned,  and  that  she  might  detain  him  to  carry  the  signs 
to  the  bishop,  and  considering  moreover  that  the  message  he  bore 
did  not  admit  of  delay,  he  pursued  another  path  lower  down  the 
mountain,  towards  the  eastern  part  of  the  hill,  imagining  that  there 
he  would  not  meet  the  Virgin.  But  this  did  not  turn  out  as  he  sup- 
posed, for  passing  the  spot  whence  a  fountain  was  flowing,  on  turn- 
ing to  the  brow  of  the  hill,  he  saw  the  Holy  Mother  descending 
from  the  summit  to  meet  him  in  the  path  !  The  Indian,  surprised  by 
the  saintly  apparition,  was  greatly  alarmed ;  but  the  Holy  Virgin, 
with  an  affable  countenance,  said  to  him :  '  Whither  goest  thou, 
my  son  ?  What  road  is  this  thou  hast  taken?'  Juan  Diego  was 
sadly  confused,  frightened,  and  abashed  ;  but  the  amenity  with 
which  Our  Lady  met  him  renewed  his  courage ;  and  prostrating 
himself  at  her  feet,  he  said  :  '  Do  not  be  offended.  Beloved  Virgin, 
at  what  I  am  about  to  say  to  you.'  And,  after  saluting  her  to  ascer- 
tain the  state  of  her  health,  he  began  to  exculpate  himself  by  briefly 
narrating  the  unfortunate  situation  of  his  uncle,  begging  her  to  have 
a  little  forbearance  with  him,  and  that  he  would  return  some  other 
day  to  obey  her  commands. 

The  Holy  Mary  heard  him  with  incomparable  benignity,  and 
replied,  '  Hear,  my  son,  what  I  say.  Do  not  allow  yourself  to  be 
disturbed  or  afflicted  by  any  thing;  neither  fear  infirmity,  affliction, 
nor  grief.     Am  not  I,  your  mother,  here .''     Are  you  not  under  my 


VIRGIN  OF  GUADALUPE.  261 

snield  and  protection  ?  Do  you  need  more  ?  Give  yourself  neither 
trouble  nor  concern  on  account  of  the  illness  of  your  uncle,  who  will 
not  die  of  this  present  malady ;  and,  moreover,  rest  satisfied  tliat 
even  at  this  very  instant  he  is  perfectly  cured.' 

The  Indian,  consoled  and  satisfied  by  the  Virgin's  assurance, 
was  filled  with  divine  confidence,  and  without  caring  for  any  thing 
else,  he  asked  for  the  sign  he  was  to  take  to  the  bishop.  The  Vir- 
gin told  him  to  ascend  the  hill  to  the  spot  where  she  had  previously 
conversed  with  him,  and  cutting  the  flowers  he  would  find  growing 
there,  to  collect  them  in  his  tilma  or  blanket  and  bring  them  to  her. 

The  Indian  obeyed  unhesitatingly,  although  he  knew  that  these 
rude  wastes  produced  nothing  but  thorns  even  in  the  most  flourish- 
ing springtide. 

Arrived,  however,  at  the  summit,  he  found  a  hed  of  various  hud- 
ding  flowers^  odorous  and  yet  wet  with  dew.  He  cut,  collected  and 
placed  in  his  tilma  as  many  of  them  as  it  would  hold  and  bore  them 
to  the  Most  Holy  Virgin,  who  awaited  him  at  the  foot  of  a  tree, 
called  by  the  Indians  Cuautzahautl,  (a  species  of  palm  of  wild 
growth,  bearing  only  white  flowers  similar  to  those  of  the  white  lily,) 
which  grew  in  front  of  and  near  the  source  of  the  fountain.  The 
Indian  bowed  humbly  and  exhibited  the  flowers  which  he  had  cut. 
The  Virgin  taking  them  in  her  blessed  hands  impressed  them  with 
a  holy  virtue  and  arranged  them  in  the  Indian's  tilma,  (which  was, 
in  fine,  to  be  the  repository  of  her  sacred  image,)  and  said  to  him, 
'  This  is  the  sign  which  I  wish  you  to  take  to  the  bishop,  in  order 
that  he  may  build  me  a  temple  on  this  spot ;'  and  she  charged  him, 
saying,  '  show  no  one  what  you  have  until  you  arrive  in  his  pre- 
sence !" 

With  this  she  dismissed  Juan;  —  and  the  Indian  rejoicing  in 
the  sign,  (for  he  knew  that  through  it  his  embassy  would  have  a 
happy  issue,)  he  hastily  took  the  path  to  Mexico. 

Juan  Diego  arrived  at  the  palace  of  the  bishop  with  the  creden- 
tials of  his  embassy,  and  informed  various  members  of  the  family 
that  he  wished  to  speak  with  him.  Nevertheless  he  could  not 
obtain  permission  to  enter,  until,  enraged  at  his  importunity  and 
perceiving  his  tilma  full  of  something,  they  sought  to  ascertain  what 
it  contained;  and  although  in  obeying  the  mandate  of  the  Most  Holy 
Virgin,  he  resisted  and  hid  from  their  sight  these  miraculous  flowers,, 
they  did  not  desist  from  using  violence  to  discover  what  he  seemed 
so  anxious  to  conceal.  Seeing,  however,  that  they  were  only  flow- 
ers wet  with  dew,  and  admirable  for  their  beauty  and  fragrance, 
they  thrice  attempted  to  seize  some  without  being  able  to  do  so,  for 


262  LEGEND    OF    THE 

the  powerful  hand  of  the  Virgin  resisted  their  violence,  affixing  the 
blossoms  in  such  a  manner  to  the  tilma  that  upon  touching  them  they 
appeared  painted  or  interwoven  in  the  material  of  the  garment  itself. 
This  portentous  novelty  caused  them  to  hasten  to  the  bishop  with 
the  information  that  Juan  Diego  was  waiting  to  speak  with  him. 

As  soon  as  the  prelate  was  informed  of  the  circumstances,  he 
ordered  the  Indian  to  enter  instantly.  As  Juan  displayed  his  tilma 
to  show  the  blessed  sign,  the  flowers  fell,  and  the  image  of  the  Most 
Holy  Virgin,  which  we  venerate  in  the  Sanctuary  of  Guadalupe,  ap- 
peared miraculously  painted  upon  the  tilma  or  garment  of  the  Indian! 
At  this  wonderful  sight  the  astonished  bishop  and  those  about  him 
prostrated  themselves  and  adored  it  with  the  greatest  veneration. 
They  were  struck  w4th  the  beauty  and  freshness  of  the  flowers 
flourishing  in  the  midst  of  winter,  but  much  more  by  the  heavenly 
beauty  of  the  image  before  them,  from  which  they  neither  attempted 
nor  were  able  to  withdraw  their  eyes. 

No  less  astonished  was  Juan  Diego  at  seeing  in  his  tilma  the 
image  of  the  one  who  had  commanded  him  to  bear  the  sign  to  the 
bishop,  when  he  thought  he  was  only  bringing  flowers. 

The  bishop  arose,  and  with  due  reverence  untied  the  knot  that 
suspended  that  sacred  cloth  from  the  back  of  the  Indian's  neck.  He 
took  it  to  his  Oratory,  and,  hanging  it  up  with  the  greatest  possible 
respect,  gave  thanks  to  God  for  so  striking  a  miracle ;  and  thus  he 
became  the  treasurer  and  depository  of  the  richest  jewel  in  the  crown 
of  America. 

The  bishop  detained  and  ministered  unto  the  Indian  that  day, 
and,  on  the  following,  went  with  a  multitude  to  the  hill,  in  order 
that  he  might  point  out  the  spot  upon  which  the  Blessed  Virgin 
desired  that  a  temple  might  be  Tauilt. 

Arrived  at  the  hill,  he  indicated  the  places  in  which  he  had 
seen  and  spoken  with  the  Sovereign  Queen,^  and,  asking  permission 
to  visit  his  uncle  Juan  Bernardino,  (whom  he  had  left  in  danger,) 
the  bishop  gave  his  consent,  and  ordered  some  of  his  companions  to 
accompany  Juan,  directing  them,  if  they  found  Juan  Bernardino 
well,  to  bring  him  thither. 

Upon  arriving  at  the  village  of  Tolpetlac  and  approaching  the 
'house  of  Juan  Bernardino,  the  convalescent  Indian  came  forth  to 
receive  his  nephew  and  ask  why  he  was  accompanied  by  so  honor 
able  a  cortege.     Thereupon  Juan  Diego  related  what  had  transpired; 
when  Juan  Bernardino,  interrupting  him,  said,  that  in  the  self-same 

'  The  Indiein  not  being  able  to  point  out  the  precise  spot,  a  fountain  gushed  from 
the  ground  and  indicated  it. 


VIRGIN    OF    GUADALUPE. 


263 


hour  in  which  the  Most  Holy  Virgin  announced  his  recovery,  she 
had  in  fact  not  only  cured  him,  but  had  appeared  and  directed  him 
to  build  a  temple  to  her  at  Tepeyacac,  where  her  image  should  be 
called  Holy  Maria  de  Guadalupe. 

The  servants  brought  the  two  Indians  to  the  presence  of  the 
bishop;  —  and  having  examined  Juan  Bernardino  concerning  his 
infirmity,  the  manner  in  which  he  had  received  his  health,  and  the 
form  under  which  Our  Lady  appeared  to  him,  and  many  other  ques- 
tions to  satisfy  himself  concerning  such  a  strange  occurrence,  which 
he  could  hardly  credit, — the  bishop  took  the  Indians  with  him  to 
his  palace. 

And  now  the  fame  of  the  miracle  was  rapidly  spread  abroad 
through  the  whole  city;  and  all  the  towns  folks  clamoring  to  have 
the  sacred  image  exposed  to  the  adoration  of  the  public,  and  running 
tumultuously  to  the  palace  of  the  Bishop,  he  caused  it  to  be  borne  to 
the  Cathedral  Church,  over  whose  highest  altar  it  was  placed  during 
the  building  of  the  hermitage  at  the  place  the  Indian  pointed  out. 
Thither  it  was  transferred  when  the  edifice  was  completed,  which 
did  not  take  place  in  fifteen  days  as  is  the  opinion  of  some  Guada- 
lupanian  authors,  but  in  two  years  and  fifteen  days,  on  the  26th  day 
of  December,  1533." 


collegiate  church  of  GUADALUPE. 

2h 


VZTEC    SERPENT    FIGURE. 


AZ 


TEC     SERPENT    FIGURKS. 


CHAPTER    VII. 
ANCIENT  REMAINS  IN  THE  STATE  OF  MEXICO. 


ANTIQUITIES    IN    THE    MUSUEM STATUE    OF    CHARLES    IV. CON- 
DITION   OF    THE    MUSEUM FEATHERED    SERPENTS VICEROY  S 

PORTRAITS CORTEZ PORTRAIT ARMOR PEDRO    DE    ALVA- 

RADO IMAGES VASES  TEZCOCO PALACE THOUGH 

MASSIVE  MOUNDS TESCOCINGO HILL ITS  ANCIENT  ADORN- 
MENTS  ANCIENT      BELLEVUE      AND      RESERVOIR TEZCOCAN 

SPLENDOR BOSQUE    DEL    CONTADOR PONDS LAKES AR- 
BORS  PYRAMIDS      OF     TEOTIHUACAN HOUSES     OF     SUN     AND 

MOON PATH    OF     THE     DEAD CARVED     PILLAR PILLAR    AT 

OTUMBA PYRAMID    OF     XOCHICALCO HILL     OF     XOCHICALCO 

ITS    STRUCTURES. 

The  largest  collection  of  the  moveable  antiquities  of  Mexico, 
belonging  to  the  Aztec  and  probably  to  the  Toltec  period  of  the 
occupation  of  the  valley  or  adjacent  country,  is  found  in  the  Museum 
which  occupies  two  or  three  rooms  and  part  of  the  court  yard  of  the 
University  building.  In  the  centre  of  the  quadrangle  around  which 
this  edifice  is  erected  is  the  fine  bronze  statue  of  Charles  IV.,  cast 
in  the  capital  by  a  native  Mexican.  It  is  an  admirable  work,  and 
before  the  revolution  stood  in  front  of  the  cathedral  in  the  plaza  or 
great  square.  The  Spanish  sovereign  is  habited  in  an  antique 
Roman  dress,  and  is  seated  on  horseback.  His  right  hand,  holding 
a  baton,  is  stretched  forward,  in  an  attitude  of  command  and  the 
folds  of  a  massive  robe  fall  gracefully  from  his  neck,  over  the  hind 
limbs  of  his  horse.  His  brow  is  bound  with  a  laurel  wreath,  and  a 
Roman  blade  rests  on  his  thigh,  whilst  the  animal  is  represented  in 
the  act  of  advancing  slowly  and  treading  on  a  quiver  of  arrows. 

This  statue  is,  of  course,  liable  to  some  just  criticism,  founded  on 
Ibe  bad  models  for  horses  which  the  artist  had  recourse  to  in 
Mexico  whilst  engaged  in  his  task ;  and  although  a  due  degree  of 
strict  adherence  to  historical  portraiture  did  not  permit  him  to 
exalt  too  much  the  personal  characteristics  of  the  king,  he  has 
nevertheless  contrived  tp  infuse  a  great  deal  of  power  into  the  statue 
so  as  to  entitle  it  to  a  fair  comparison  with  some  of  the  best  European 
equestrian  works  in  bronze.  All  the  minor  parts  of  the  figures  and 
their  decorations  are  finished  with  the  utmost  neatness,  and  another 


FEATHERED    SERPENTS VICEROy's    PORTRAITS.  267 

proof  is  given,  in  this  statue  of  the  genius  possessed  by  the  natives 
for  the  imitative  arts.  It  was  the  work  of  Tolsa,  and  was  first 
opened  to  public  view  on  its  pedestal  in  the  plaza,  in  the  year  1803, 
under  the  viceroyal  government  of  Iturrigaray. 

In  a  corner  of  this  court  yard,  on  the  left  of  the  portal,  amid  a 
quantity  of  ancient  lumber  and  relics,  are  the  sacrificial  stone  and 
the  gigantic  idol  statue  of  Teoyaomiqui,  described  in  the  first  volume 
of  this  work.  Here,  too,  are  the  huge  serpent  images,  carved  from 
basalt,  which  are  presumed  to  have  been  used  in  the  worship  of 
Quetzalcoatl  —  the  "feathered  serpent,"  —  the  "god  of  the  air." 

After  an  examination  of  the  massive  relics  which  lie  in  the  court 
yard  of  the  University,  we  ascend  by  a  broad  stone  staircase  to  the 
corridor  surrounding  the  quadrangle  on  the  second  floor.  The 
lower  story  of  this  edifice  is  occupied  by  the  college  chapel  and  the 
hall  or  recitation  room,  whose  lofty  ceiling  and  windows,  gloomy 
walls,  and  carved  oaken  seats  and  pulpit,  remind  the  stranger  of  the 
fine  old  monastic  chambers  in  similar  institutions  in  Europe. 

The  apartments  of  the  second  floor  open  upon  the  broad  corridor 
under  a  light  and  tasteful  arcade,  and  several  rooms  on  the  northern 
side  are  devoted  to  the  national  collections,  which,  at  the  period  of 
our  visit  to  Mexico  in  1841  and  1842  were  badly  arranged  and 
classified.  The  salary  devoted  to  the  curator  was  scarcely  adequate 
to  support  him,  and  he  probably  paid  more  attention  to  the  politics 
of  the  present  day  than  to  the  antiquities  of  the  past.  Neverthe- 
less, we  found  him  to  be  an  intelligent  gentleman,  fond  of  the  relics, 
images  and  legends  of  the  Aztecs.  He  would,  doubtless,  have 
organized  the  valuable  collection  had  he  been  suitably  aided, 
recompensed,  or  enabled  to  devote  the  whole  of  his  time  to  the 
archaiology  of  his  country. 

The  first  apartment  on  this  side  of  the  building  is  a  sort  of 
Spanish  lumber  room,  the  wall  of  which  is  friezed  with  a  series 
of  the  viceroys,  whilst,  in  a  corner,  stand  the  fragments  of  a 
throne,  waiting,  perhaps,  the  order  for  their  reconstruction  upon 
the  ruins  of  the  presidential  chmr.  Hard  by  this  royal  relic,  in  ap- 
propriate contrast,  is  an  unfinished  bas  relief  of  a  trophy  of  liberty; 
and  above  the  sculpture,  suspended  against  the  wall  in  a  rough  pine 
coffin,  hangs  an  Indian  mummy,  w^hich  was  exhumed  in  the  fields 
of  Tlaltelolco  north  of  the  capital.  Another  side  of  this  saloon  is 
occupied  by  full  length  portraits  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  In  the 
next  chamber,  west  of  this,  the  mass  of  the  smaller  Aztec  relics  has 
been  collected  and  preserved  in  cases.  A  small  library,  containing 
some  ancient  manuscripts,  and  the  splendid  work  of  Lord  Kings- 


VASES    FKOM    T  UL  A. 


yi:)KE,  KNIFE,  SMALL.  VASES  AND  ALTARS  USED   IN  AZTEC   SACRIFICES. 

2i 


CORTEZ PORTRAIT ARMOR PEDRO   DE  ALVARADO.         273 

borough  on  Mexican  antiquities,  are  preserved  in  this  apartment, 
while  on  the  surrounding  shelves,  are  deposited  specimens  of  the 
pottery,  vases,  pipes,  idols,  images,  bows,  arrows,  axes,  masks, 
sacrificial  instruments,  beads  and  altars  of  the  Aztecs. 

Around  the  frieze  of  this  room,  as  around  that  of  the  preceding, 
are  portraits  of  Mexican  viceroys,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  pic- 
ture of  the  conqueror  Hernando  Cortez,  from  which  the  engraving 
in  these  volumes  has  been  accurately  copied.  Its  authenticity  is  un- 
questionable, for  its  history  has  been  carefully  traced  to  the  period 
of  the  third  viceroy,  Don  Gaston  de  Peralta,  Marques  de  Falces. 
This  portrait  represents  the  hero  of  the  conquest  differently  from 
any  other  picture  we  have  found  either  engraved  or  in  oil,  and  ex- 
hibits the  mingled  air  of  elevated  veneration  and  command,  of 
firmness  and  dignity,  reflection  and  resolute  action,  which  are  the 
chief  historical  characteristics  of  this  personage.  In  a  corner,  be- 
neath the  portrait,  is  a  plain,  unornamented  suit  of  steel  armor, 
which  belonged  to  the  hero.  Its  small  dimensions  convey  no  favor- 
able impression  of  the  hero's  size  or  strength.  The  armor,  and 
patent  of  nobility  granted  by  Charles  V.  to  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  the 
companion  of  Cortez,  are  also  preserved  in  this  saloon.  The  royal 
document  is  exceedingly  interesting  from  the  fact  that  it  contains 
the  autographs  of  the  emperor  and  of  Cortez,  w^ho  signed  it  as  El 
Marques  del  Valle  de  Oajaca.  ^  Near  these  relics  of  two  of  the 
leaders  of  the  conquering  army,  preserved  religiously  under  glass 
in  a  golden  frame,  is  the  crimson  silken  banner,  bearing  the  image 
of  the  Virgin,  crowned  with  a  golden  coronet  and  surrounded  with 
twelve  stars,  under  which  that  army  is  alleged  by  the  antiquarians 
to  have  marched  the  second  time  against  the  Aztec  capital. 

In  the  apartment  west  of  this,  and  facing  on  the  plaza  del  Vola- 
dor,  are  the  collections  in  natural  history,  which  have  been  chosen 
apparently,  rather  as  curiosities  than  for  scientific  purposes.  The 
specimens  of  birds,  beasts  and  reptiles,  are  indifferently  preserved 
and  classified,  and  even  the  collection  of  minerals,  which,  in  Mexico, 
ought  to  be  of  the  most  perfect  character,  scarcely  deserves  mention 
as  an  important  illustrative  cabinet. 

The  number  of  small  images,  which  are^usually  called  idols,  con- 
tained in  the  cases  of  the  principal  saloon  is  very  large,  and  speci- 
mens are  presented  from  most  parts  of  the  territory  comprised  in  the 

'  This  armor  and  patent  of  nobility,  were  offered  to  the  author  of  this  work  in 
1842,  before  they  were  purchased  by  the  government,  for  one  hundred  and  forty 
dollars,  and,  at  his  recommendation,  they  were  tendered,  as  a  first  choice,  to  the  na- 
tional authorities  who  bousht  them. 


274  IMAGES VASES TEZCOCO. 

empire  of  the  Aztec  sovereigns,  as  well  as  fromMechoacan.  Some 
of  the  finest  of  these,  both  large  and  small,  are  exhibited  in  Ihe 
plates  annexed  to  this  section ;  and  we  do  not  describe  them  mi- 
nutely or  singly,  because  they  depend  for  their  interest  upon  their 
forms,  which  are  better  depicted  in  drawings  than  language.  Most 
of  these  were  carefully  delineated  and  measured  by  the  author  of 
this  work  himself,  and  their  accuracy  may  be  confidently  relied  on. 

Two  of  the  most  beautiful  and  rare  objects  comprised  in  this  col- 
lection, are  the  terra-catta  funeral  vases,  one  of  which  is  represented 
in  the  accompanying  engraving.  It  was  exhumed  some  years  ago 
in  the  northern  suburb  of  the  capital,  known  as  St.  Juan  Tlaltelolco, 
the  neighborhood  of  the  ancient  site  of  one  of  the  Aztec  teocallis. 
It  is  one  foot  ten  inches  high,  and  one  foot  three  and  a  half  inches 
in  diameter.  Its  upper  portion  was  filled  with  human  skulls,  and 
the  lower  with  bones  of  the  rest  of  the  frame,  while  the  top  was 
carefully  covered  with  the  circular  lid,  which  is  given  in  the  plate. 
The  Indian  head,  winged  and  crowned  with  a  circlet  of  twisted 
bands  and  feathers,  the  graceful  handles,  and  the  semicircle  of  sun- 
flowers and  ears  of  corn,  which  curves  beneath  the  central  orna- 
ment, will  give  the  reader  an  accurate  idea  of  the  reliefs  with  which 
this  vase  is  adorned.  Besides  these  symbols  of  eternity,  fruition 
and  fullness,  the  vessel  still  exhibits  the  brilliant  colors  of  blue,  ver- 
million,  lake,  yellow  and  brown,  with  which  it  was  originally  tinted. 

Some  beautiful  specimens  of  the  ancient  musical  instruments  of 
the  Aztecs,  are  also  preserved  in  this  museum,  and  correct  draw- 
ings of  their  flageolets,  whistles,  drums  and  rattles,  will  be  found 
in  the  engravings. 

TEZCOCO— TESCOCINGO. 

We  turn  naturally  from  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Aztec  empire  to 
the  remains  of  art  and  architecture  which  are  yet  found  on  the  site 
of  Tezcoco,  the  second  city  in  the  realm,  and  in  its  vicinity.  It 
was  in  this  place  that  Cortez  prepared  for  his  second  assault  upon 
the  city  of  Tenochtitlan  or  Mexico,  and  here  he  put  together  and 
launched  on  the  lake  the  vessels  which  he  had  caused  to  be  fashioned 
in  Tlascala  on  the  otKer  side  of  the  mountains  that  bound  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  valley  of  Mexico.  The  spot  where  these  vehicles  of  his 
troops  across  the  waters  of  Tezcoco  were  first  deposited  in  their  pro- 
per element  is  still  pointed  out  by  the  inhabitants,  and  is  known  as 
El  Puente  de  las  Brigantinas,  though  it  is  now  more  than  a  mile 
from  the  shore  of  the  lake^  ^ 

The  waters  of  the  lake,  it  will  be  recollected,  have  fallen  greatly  since  the  conquest. 


MINERAL    VASE    AND    COVER. 


PALACE TROUGH MASSIVE  MOUNDS. 


275 


In  the  north-west  section  of  the  modern  town  of  Tezcoco,  on  the 
top  of  a  shapeless  mass  of  pottery,  bricks,  mortar  and  earth,  which 
is  thickly  overgrown  with  aloes,  there  are  several  large  slabs  of 
basaltic  rock,  neatly  squared  and  laid  due  north  and  south.  Ac- 
cording to  the  legends  of  the  spot  this  is  the  site  of  one  of  the 
royal  residences,  and  like  most  of  the  antiquities  of  Mexico,  is  con- 
nected with  the  name  of  the  best  known  emperor,  as  the  palace  of 
Montezuma.  When  Mr.  Poinsett  visited  Tezcoco  in  ]S25,  this 
heap  had  not  been  pillaged  for  modern  architectural  purposes,  as 
much  as  it  has  been  since  that  period.  Among  the  ruins  of  the 
supposed  palace  he  then  found,  a  regularly  arched  and  well  built 
passage,  sewer,  or  aqueduct,  which  was  formed  of  square  stones 
the  size  of  bricks,  cemented  with  the  strong  mortar  which  was 
so  much  used  by  the  Indians  in  all  their  works.  In  the  door 
of  one  of  the  rooms  he  noticed  the  remains  of  a  "  very  flat  arch," 
the  stones  comprising  which  were  of  prodigious  size  and  weight. 
On  this  spot,  some  years  ago,  was  found  the  sculptured  basin, 
which,  at  the  period  of  our  visit,  had  been  transferred  to  and  pre- 
served in  the  collection  of  the  Ex-Conde  del  Penasco  in  the  city  of 
Mexico. 


THOUGH    FROM    TEZCOCO. 


In  the  southern  part  of  Tezcoco,  are  the  massive  remains  of  three 
vast  pyramids,  whose  forms  are  still  remarkably  perfect.  They  suc- 
ceed each  other  in  a  direct  line  from  north  to  south,  and,  according 
to  our  measurement,  are  about  four  hundred  feet  in  extent,  on  each 
of  their  fronts,  along  the  base  line.  They  are  built  partly  of  burned 
and  partly  of  sun  dried  bricks,  mixed  up  with  fragments  of  pottery 
and  thick  coverings  of  cement,  through  which  neat  canals  had  been 


276  TESCOCINGO HILL ITS  ANCIENT  ADORNMENTS. 

moulded  to  carry  off  the  water  from  the  upper  terrace.  Bernal 
Diaz  del  Castillo  informs  us,  that  the  chief  teocalli  of  Tezcoco  was 
ascended  by  one  hundred  and  seventeen  steps;  and,  from  the  quan- 
tity of  obsidian  fragments,  images,  vessels  and  heads  of  idols  we 
found  upon  the  sides  of  these  structures,  it  is  not  unlikely,  that  they, 
like  the  teocallis  of  the  capital  were  devoted  to  the  same  bloody  and 
impious  rites.  In  some  of  the  private  houses  of  this  town,  many 
larger  idols  or  images  cut  from  basalt  are  still  preserved,  and  in 
1825,  Mr.  Poinsett  saw  at  the  residence  of  the  commandant  several 
of  these  figures,  which  were  better  formed  and  designed  than  most 
of  the  Indian  statues  he  had  previously  encountered  in  his  Mexican 
travels. 

TESCOCINGO. 

About  three  miles  across  the  gently  sloping  levels  which  spread 
out  east  of  the  town  of  Tezcoco,  a  sharp,  precipitous  conical  moun- 
tain rises  abruptly  from  the  plain,  which  is  stripped  of  the  forests 
that  once  probably  clothed  its  sides,  and  is  now  only  covered  with 
a  thick  growlh  of  nopals,  bushes  and  aloes.  From  the  quantity  of 
Indian  remains  found  on  this  elevation  and  in  its  vicinity,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  it  was  the  site  of  an  Aztec  palace,  or  was  connected 
with  the  adjacent  plain  by  some  architectural  works  that  have  been 
destroyed  in  the  centuries  that  have  elapsed  since  the  conquest. 
The  traveller  climbs  this  steep  mountain  with  great  labor,  and  finds 
nearly  every  part  of  it  covered  with  the  debris  of  ancient  pottery 
and  obsidian ;  and,  in  many  parts  of  his  ascent,  he  is  aided  by  the 
remains  of  the  spiral  road,  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  which  evidently 
once  wound  from  its  base  to  its  top.  Fifty  feet  below  the  summit, 
looking  exactly  north,  the  massive  stone  of  the  mountain  has  been 
cut  into  seats  surrounding  a  recess  leading  to  a  steep  wall  which  is 
said  to  have  been  covered  with  a  Toltec  or  Aztec  calendar.  The 
sculptures  upon  the  rock  have,  however,  been  destroyed  by  tlie  In- 
dians, who  cut  through  it  as  soon  as  they  found  the  spot  an  object 
of  interest  to  strangers.  These  simple  and  superstitious  beings 
imagined  that  the  quest  of  gold,  alone,  could  induce  travellers  to 
leave  the  capital,  cross  the  lake,  and  toil  up  to  the  summit  of  this 
elevation,  and,  accordingly  they  bored  through  the  carved  rock  to 
obtain  the  buried  treasure,  until  they  have  formed  a  hole  in  the 
mountain,  which  is  now  the  hiding  place  and  probably  the  home  of 
a  large  number  of  squalid  wretches.  On  the  absolute  top  of  the 
mountain  no  traces  of  an  edifice  are  now  observable;  but  as  the  Span- 
iards supposed  it  had  been  desecrated  by  Indian  rites  in  the  olden 


ANCIENT  BELLEVUE  AND  RESEKVOIR. 


277 


time,  it  has  been  sanctified  by  the  erection  of  a  cross,  from  whose 
feet  the  whole  valley  of  Mexico,  with  its  lakes,  plains,  towns  and 
majestic  panorama  of  encircling  mountains,  bursts  on  the  sight  of 
the  wearied  traveller. 

Returning  to  the  recess  from  the  summit,  and  winding  thence  by 
a  spiral  path  down  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  hill,  we  find  the  road 
suddenly  ended  by  a  wall  which  plunges  precipitously  down  the 
mountain  for  about  two  hundred  feet.  At  this  termination  of  the 
j)athway,  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  we  found  another  recess,  surrounded 
with  seats,  while,  in  the  centre  of  the  area,  was  a  circular  basin,  a 
yard  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  three  feet  deep,  into  which  water 
was  formerly  introduced,  through  the  small  aperture  in  the  square 
pipe  which  is  delineated  in  the  engraving. 


H< 


-Y'  vl- 


ANCIENT    RESERVOIR. 

This  basin  has,  of  course,  been  also  connected  with  the  fame  of 
the  emperor,  and  is  known  as  "Montezuma's  bath."  Its  true  use, 
however,  is  perfectly  evident  to  those  who  are  less  fanciful  or  an- 
tiquarian than  the  generality  of  visiters.  The  picturesque  view 
from  this  spot,  over  a  small  plain  set  in  a  frame  of  the  surrounding 
2j 


278  TEZCOCAN    SPLENDOR BOSQUE  DEL  CONTADOR. 

mountains  and  glens  which  border  the  eastern  side  of  Tescocingo, 
undoubtedly  made  this  recess  a  favorite  resort  for  the  royal  person- 
ages at  whose  expense  these  costly  works  were  made.  From  the 
surrounding  seats,  they  enjoyed  a  delicious  prospect  over  the  lovely 
but  secluded  scenery,  while,  in  the  basin,  at  their  feet,  were  gath- 
ered the  waters  of  a  neighboring  spring,  which,  whilst  refreshing 
them  after  their  promenade  on  the  mountain,  gurgled  out  of  its  stony 
channel  and  fell  in  a  mimic  cascade  over  the  precipitous  cliff  that 
terminated  their  path.  It  was  to  this  shady  spot  that  they  no  doubt 
retired  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  sun  was  hot  on  the  west  of  the 
mountain,  and  here  the  sovereign  and  his  court,  in  all  probability, 
enjoyed  the  repose  and  privacy  which  were  denied  them  amid  the 
bustle  of  the  city.  Antiquarianism  would  be  greatly  assisted  in  its  re- 
searches and  conjectures,  if  it  recollected  that  the  nature  of  civilized 
men  is  the  same  in  all  ages,  and  that  it  is  easier  to  judge  the  archi- 
tectural remains  of  our  ancestors  by  this  standard  than  by  the  fanci- 
ful or  classical  rules,  which  they  are  dramatically  disposed  to  conjure 
up  in  order  to  interpret  the  past. 

The  hill  or  mountain  of  Tescocingo  is  connected  with  another 
hill  on  the  east  by  a  tall  embankment  about  two  hundred  feet  high, 
upon  whose  level  top,  —  which  may  be  crossed  by  three  persons 
abreast,  on  horseback,  —  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  aqueduct, 
built  of  baked  clay,  the  pipes  of  which  are  now  as  perfect  as  on  the 
day  they  were  first  laid.  The  water  was  brought  hither  by  a  canal 
around  the  hill  to  which  it  is  connected  by  the  embankment;  while, 
east  of  this,  and  uniting  the  last  hill  with  another  elevation,  there  is 
a  second  aqueduct  raised  on  an  embankment,  which  was  fed  by 
other  aqueducts  and  canals  that  formerly  conducted  the  water  from 
the  eastern  mountains  about  three  leagues  distant. 

Such  are  some  of  the  remains  of  Tezcocan  sumptuousness,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  ancient  capital  of  this  region ;  and,  together 
with  the  ancient  grove  of  cypresses,  known  as  El  Eosque  del  Con- 
tador,  lying  across  the  levels  north-west  of  Tezcoco,  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  most  remarkable  relics  of  the  princes  and  people  of 
the  Tezcocan  monarchy.  The  grove  of  the  Contador  is  formed  by 
double  rows  of  gigantic  cypresses,  about  five  hundred  in  number, 
arranged  in  a  square  corresponding  with  the  points  of  the  compass 
and  enclosing  an  area  of  nearly  ten  acres.  At  the  north-western 
point  of  this  quadrangle  another  double  row  of  lordly  cypresses  runs 
westwardly  towards  a  dyke,  north  of  which  there  is  a  deep  oblong 


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j:;ri!Ml'!;!iii:!ii':!a'ii!i''^i!:'lf^ 


PONDS LAKES ARBORS TEOTIHUACAN.  279 

tank,  neatly  walled  and  filled  with  water.  From  the  soft  spongy 
character  of  the  soil  in  the  centre  of  the  great  quadrangular  grove — 
which  it  is  impossible  for  any  one  to  cross  without  danger  of  being 
mired  in  the  unsubstantial  morass,  —  it  is  supposed  that  th§  vast 
area  was  once  occupied  by  a  lake,  whose  waters  were  probably  for- 
ever renewed  by  the  hydraulic  works  we  have  already  described  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Tescocingo.  Along  the  raised  banks,  and 
beneath  the  shadows  of  the  double  line  of  majestic  trees,  were  the 
walks  and  arbors  in  which  Nezahualcoyotl  and  his  courtiers  amused 
themselves.  The  ponds  and  lakes  were  filled  with  fish  and  fre- 
quented by  the  wild  fowl  that  now  cover  the  margins  of  the  Mexi- 
can lakes  ;  while  the  same  benignant  sky  and  delicious  climate  that 
bless  the  descendants  of  the  Spaniards,  reigned  then,  as  now,  over 
the  dusky  children  of  the  soil.  ^ 

PYRAMIDS    OF    TEOTIHUACAN. 

A  ride  on  horseback  of  about  three  hours  at  a  pleasant  pace,  will 
bring  the  traveller  from  Tezcoco  to  the  village  of  St.  Juan,  lying  in 
an  extensive  level  bordered  on  all  sides  by  ridges  and  mountain 
spurs,  except  towards  the  east,  where  a  depression  in  the  chain 
leads  into  the  plains  of  Otumba,  upon  which  Cortez  fought  so  re- 
markable a  battle  when  pursued  by  the  victorious  Aztecs.  In  the 
centre  of  the  levels  of  St.  Juan  are  the  two  remarkable  pyamids  of 
Teotihuacan,  —  the  Tonatiuh-Ytzagual,  or  "house  of  the  sun," 
and  the  Meztli-Ytzagual,  or  "house  of  the  moon."  These  vast 
masses  first  break  upon  the  sight  as  the  ridge  is  crossed.  At  that 
distance  the  foliage  and  bushes  that  cover  them  are  not  easily  dis- 
cerned, and  the  perfect  figure  of  the  original  structure  seems  to  be 
revealed  in  all  its  freshness.  As  the  objects  are  approached,  how- 
ever, the  work  of  time  upon  the  monuments  becomes  evident.  The 
sharp  pyramidal  lines  are  all  broken.  Aloes,  nopals,  magueys, 
mesquite  and  parasites  crawl  and  cling  over  every  part  of  the  ruined 
heaps  ;  and  the  whole  mass  resembles  a  crumbhng  but  gigantic  pile 
of  rocks  and  earth,  which  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  adja- 
cent hills  until  its  structure  is  closely  examined. 

'  The  reader  will  find  an  interestins;  account  in  Spanish,  of  the  residence  of  Neza- 
hualcoyotl at  Tescocingo,  extracted  from  Ixtlilxochitl's  history  of  the  Chichimecas, 
in  the  third  volume  of  Prescdtt's  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,  page  430.  The 
hill  or  mountain  described  in  this  section,  is  doubtless  the  same  one  referred  to  by 
the  Indian  historian  ;  and  it  is  to  the  Vandalism  of  Fray  Zumarraga,  the  archbishop, 
that  we  are  indebted  for  the  destruction  of  one  of  the  most  graceful  and  elegant  monu- 
ments of  Indian  civilization. 


HOUSES   OF   SUN  AND    MOON PATH   OF  THE  DEAD.  281 

Ascending  the  one  hundred  and  twenty-one  feet  of  the  house  of 
the  Sun,  we  reach  a  level  platform  on  the  summit,  whence  a  charm- 
ing prospect  extends  for  many  miles  to  the  south  and  east  over  cul- 
tivated fields.  At  the  southern  base  of  this  pyramid,  which  measures 
six  hundred  and  eighty-two  feet,  there  are  four  small  mounds,  and 
beyond  these  there  is  a  range  of  lesser  tumuli  running  towards  an 
elevated  square  of  mounds  lying  between  the  stream  west  of  Teoti- 
huacan  and  the  present  road  to  Otumba.  On  the  west  front,  five 
tumuli  surround  an  oval  mound  whose  centre  is  depressed,  and  all 
of  these  jut  out  westwardly  towards  a  line  of  similar  grave-like  ele- 
vations lying  on  both  sides  of  the  avenue  that  leads  to  the  house  of  the 
Moon.  This  road  is  the  Micoatl,  or  path  of  the  dead,  which  the 
ancient  writers  locate  in  the  valley  of  San  Juan. 

The  other  pyramid,  or  house  of  the  Moon  is  smaller,  and  like  its 
neighbor  is  composed  of  rock,  stones,  pottery  and  cement, —  cov- 
ered with  the  debris  of  obsidian  and  terra  catta  images  which  lie 
scattered  from  the  top  to  the  base  amid  the  tangled  aloes  and  creep- 
ers that  have  struck  their  roots  deeply  into  the  cre\aces.  The  house 
of  the  Sun  is  not  known  to  have  any  cavity  within  its  body,  but  in 
the  house  of  the  Moon,  between  the  second  and  third  terraces,  a 
narrow  passage  has  been  detected,  through  which  two  wells  or 
sunken  chambers,  about  fifteen  feet  deep,  may  be  reached  by  crawl- 
ing on  hands  and  knees  over  an  inclined  plain  for  a  distance  of 
about  eight  yards.  The  walls  of  this  crj-ptic  entrance,  and  of  the 
sunken  chamber  are  made  of  the  common  sun  dried  bricks,  but 
there  are  no  remains  of  sculpture,  painting,  or  bodies  to  reward  an 
antiquarian  for  groping  through  the  dark  and  dusty  aperture. 

South  of  this  pyramid  of  the  Moon,  is  the  Micoatl  or  path  of  the 
dead,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded.  Two  elliptical  elevations 
rise  at  the  south-east  and  south-west  corner  of  the  Teocalli,  upon 
each  of  which  there  are  three  mounds,  whilst  their  diameters  are 
bisected  by  other  rectilinear  elevations  upon  each  of  which  there 
are  five  similar  mounds.  Four  circular  and  one  square  mound  lie 
within  the  area  of  this  inclosure,  and  the  whole  appears  to  form  a 
massive  portal  of  tumuli  to  the  majestic  pyramid.  A  long  double 
line  of  minor  mounds  stretches  away  to  the  south  on  the  sides  of 
the  avenue,  until  all  traces  of  them  are  lost  in  the  field  in  front  of 
the  temple  of  the  sun  with  whose  groups  of  tumuli  this  path  was  in 
all  likelihood  formerly  united.  The  student  will  obtain  a  better  idea 
of  the  localities  of  these  remains  by  examining  the  plan  which  was 
carefully  prepared  by  the  author,  on  the  spot,  in  1842.  At  B,  on 
the  plan,  there  is  a  large  globular  mass  of  granite   measuring  nine- 


282 


CARVED    PILLAR 


PILLAR    AT    ()TU>IBA. 


teen  feet  eight  inches  in  circumference,  upon  which  there  is  some 
rude  carvins:  which  lias  been  found  to  bear  some  resemblance  to  the 
Aztec  figure  of  the  sun;  —  and  in  the  semicircuhir  enclosure  among 
the  tumuli^  at  C,  is  placed  the  sculptured  granite  stone,  represented 
in  the  annexed  cut.     It  lies  due  east  and  west.     The  dark  shadow 


at  B,  represents  a  sink  or  hollow  three  inches  deep  at  the  sides,  and 
six  at  the  top  and  bottom.  This  is  known  as  the  "fainting  stone," 
as  it  is  alleged  that  all  who  recline  on  its  surface  are  sure  to  expe- 
rience lassitude,  or  loose  animation  for  a  while ! 

OTUMB  A. 

This  place  is  famous  in  the  ancient  history  of  Mexico,  but  no 
remains  of  importance  have  been  found  in  its  vicinity  or  within 
the  limits  of  the  village.  When  Mr.  Poinsett  visited  it  during 
his  residence  in  Mexico  as  Envoy  from  the  United  States,  he  ob- 
served no  relic  of  the  past  worthy  of  examination  or  record  except 
the  fragment  of  a  pillar  represented  in  the  annexed  drawing. 


PYKAMII)  OF  XOCHICAI.CO.  283 

THE    PYRAMID    OF    XOCHICALCO. 

About  eighteen  miles  south  of  Cuernavaca,  in  the  State  of  Mexi- 
co, there  is  a  cerro  or  hill,  known  as  Xochicalco  or  the  "  hill  of 
flowers,"  whose  summit  is  occupied  by  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
stone  pyramid.  The  traveller  reaches  this  eminence  after  travelling 
over  a  wide  plain  intersected  by  deep  barrancas,  and  almost  entirely 
denuded  of  trees  and  shrubbery.  The  base  of  this  hill  is  surrounded 
by  the  remains  of  a  deep  wide  ditch,  and  its  top  is  attained  by  five 
spiral  terraces,  supported  by  walls  of  stone  joined  with  cement.  At 
suitable  distances  from  each  other,  along  the  edge  of  this  winding 
path  are  the  remains  of  bulwarks  fashioned  like  the  bastions  of  a 
fortification.  On  the  summit  there  is  a  wide  extensive  level,  the 
eastern  part  of  which  is  occupied  by  three  truncated  cones,  resem- 
bling the  smaller  mounds  found  among  the  pyramids  of  Teotihua- 
can.  On  the  other  three  sides  of  the  esplenade  there  are  other 
masses  of  stones,  which  may  have  also  been  portions  of  similar 
tumuli.  The  stones  of  which  these  lesser  mounds  were  constructed 
have  evidently  been  nicely  shaped  and  covered  with  a  coat  of  stucco. 

Passing  upward,  amid  tangled  trees  and  vines,  along  the  last  ter- 
race, and  through  the  cornfield  which  is  cultivated  on  the  plain  at 
top  by  an  Indian  ranchero^  the  traveller  at  length  stands  before  the 
remains  of  the  elegant  structure  that  once  crowned  the  summit  with 
its  carved  and  massive  architecture.  The  reports  of  engineers  who 
visited  this  pyramid  in  years  long  past,  and  the  legends  of  the. 
neighborhood,  declared  that  it  originally  consisted  of  five  stories, 
placed  upon  each  other  at  regular  intervals  and  separated  by  narrow 
platforms.  But  of  all  these,  nothing  now  remains  except  portions 
of  the  first  body,  wdiich  is  formed  of  cut  porphyry  and  covered  with 
the  singular  emblems  which  are  accurately  represented  in  the  an- 
nexed plate  of  the  north-western  angle. 

Amid  the  neglect  of  the  viceroyal  government,  and  the  revolu- 
tionary disturbances  subsequent  to  the  rebellion  against  Spain,  this 
beautiful  monument  of  ancient  art,  seems  to  have  been  entirely  for- 
gotten, save  by  the  neighboring  haciendados  or  planters,  who  used 
it  as  a  quarry,  from  which  they  might  supply  the  wants  of  their 
estates  without  the  trouble  or  expense  of  a  stone  cutter.  In  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  fine  terraces  w^ere  yet  perfect. 
But,  as  the  country  became  settled  in  the  neighborhood,  the  farmers 
began  to  pilfer  from  the  mass,  and,  not  long  before  we  visited  it  in 
1842,  an  adjacent  land  ow^ner  had  carried  oflf  large  loads  of  the 
sculptured  stones  to  build  a  dam  in  a  neighboring  ravine,  for  the 
use  of  his  cattle. 


HILL    OF    XOCUICALCO  ITS     STRUCTURES.  285 

The  story  of  this  pyramid  that  has  been  thus  far  spared,  is  rec- 
tangular ;  and,  facing  north,  south,  east  and  west,  in  exact  corres- 
pondence with  the  cardinal  points,  it  measures  sixty-four  feet  on 
its  northern  front  above  the  plinth,  and  fifty-eight  on  the  western. 
The  distance  between  the  plinth  and  frieze  is  about  ten  feet,  the 
breadth  of  the  frieze  is  three  feet  and  a  half,  and  the  height  of  the 
cornice  one  foot  and  five  inches.  The  most  perfect  portion  is  the 
northern  front;  and,  here,  the  carving  in  relief,  which  is  between 
three  and  four  inches  deep,  is  most  distinctly  visible.  The  massive 
stones,  — some  of  which  are  seven  feet  eleven  inches  long,  by  two 
feet  nine  inches  wide ;  five  feet  two  inches  long,  and  two  feet  six 
inches  broad,  and  five  feet  long,  two  feet  seven  inches  high,  and 
four  feet  seven  inches  broad,  —  are  all  laid  upon  each  other  without 
cement,  and  kept  together  simply  by  the  pressure  and  gravity  of  the 
general  architecture.  These  dimensions  of  the  fragments  of  so 
splendid  an  edifice  will  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  labor  and  in- 
genuity which  were  employed  in  its  construction.  For  it  must  be 
remembered,  that  not  only  was  the  Indian  skill  taxed  in  the  design 
and  shaping  of  the  stones  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  but  that 
the  weighty  materials  were  drawn  from  a  considerable  distance,  and 
borne  up  a  hill  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  without  the  use  of  horses. 
The  terraces  supporting  the  spiral  path,  and  their  bastion-like  bul- 
warks, were  subjects  of  equal  labor;  while  the  broad  deep  ditch,  sur- 
-•ounding  the  whole,  was  in  itself  a  work  exacting  the  most  patient 
industry.  Few  nations  have  probably  devoted  more  time  and  toil  to 
a  work  which  was  perhaps  partly  religious  and  partly  defensive. 

These  are  the  external  works  upon  the  Cerro  of  Xochicalco,  but 
it  appears  from  good  authority,  and  from  the  report  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, that  the  hill  itself  was  partly  hollowed  into  chambers.  Some 
years  since  a  party  of  gentlemen,  under  the  orders  of  government, 
explored  these  subterranean  retreats,  and,  after  groping  through 
dark  and  narrow  passages,  whose  side  walls  are  covered  with  a 
hard  and  glistening  gray  cement,  they  came  to  three  entrances  be- 
tween two  enormous  pillars  cut  from  the  rock  of  which  the  hill  is 
formed.  Through  these  portals  they  entered  a  chamber,  whose 
roof  was  a  cupola  of  regular  shape,  built  of  stones  placed  in  circles, 
while  at  the  top  of  the  dome  was  an  aperture,  which  probably  led 
to  the  surface  of  the  earth  or  the  summit  of  the  pyramid.  Nebel, 
who  visited  the  ruins  some  years  ago,  relates  an  Indian  tradition, 
that  this  aperture  ascended  immediately  above  an  altar  placed  in 
this  chamber,  and  that  the  sun's  rays  fell  directly  on  the  centre  of 
the  shrine  when  that  luminary  was  vertical! 


CHAPTER     VIII. 


STATE  OF  MECHOACAN BOUNDARIES ELEVATIONS  VOLCANO 

OF  JORULLO THEORIES   OF  HUMBOLDT  AND  LYELL PRESENT 

CONDITION RIVERS  OF  MECHOACAN CLIMATE  HEALTH  

INDIANS DEPARTMENTS AGRICULTURE TOWNS MINES 

JALISCO  BOUNDARIES  POPULATION  —  RIVERS  LAKES  

DIVISIONS MANUFACTURES  AGRICULTURE  FACTORIES  

GUADALAJARA TOWNS SAN  JUAN  DE  LOS   LAGOS TEPIC  

SAN  BLAS MINES ISLANDS  MINING  REGION INDIANS  

CHARACTER  AND  HABITS CHURCH  AND   SCHOOL EDUCATION 

BISHOPRIC  TERRITORY  OF  COLIMA EXTENT CLIMATE 

PRODUCTIONS TOWNS. 


THE    STATE    OF    MECHOACAN. 

The  State  of  Mechoacan  is  the  old  Spanish  Intendencia  of  Val- 
lodolid,  and  inckides  a  great  part  of  the  ancient  Indian  Kingdom 
of  Mechoacan,  or  Mechoacan  of  the  Tarascos.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Guanajuato,  north-easterly  of  Queretaro,  south-easterly 
by  Mexico,  westerly  by  Jalisco,  and  south-westerly,  for  a  short  dis- 
tance, by  the  Pacific. 

This  State  lies  chiefly  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cordillera,  and  is 
cut  up  by  hills  and  genial  vallies.  The  highest  point  within  its  limits 
is  the  Peak  of  Tancitaro,  which,  in  all  probability,  is  an  extinct  vol- 
cano. East  of  this,  and  south  of  the  village  of  Ario,  the  Volcano  of 
Jorullo  burst  forth  on  the  night  of  the  29th  of  September,  1759. 

The  great  region  to  which  this  mountain  belongs  has  been 
already  described  in  our  account  of  the  geological  structure  of 
Mexico.  The  plain  of  Malpais  forms  part  of  an  elevated  platform, 
between  2,000  and  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is 
bounded  by  hills  composed  of  basalt,  trachyte,  and  volcanic  tuff, 
clearly  indicating  that  the  country  had  previously,  though  probably 
at  a  remote  period,  been  the  theatre  of  igneous  action.  From  the 
era  of  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  to  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  the  district  had  remained  undisturbed,  and  the  space,  now 
the  site  of  the  volcano,  which  is  thirty  leagues  distant  from  the 
nearest  sea,  was  occupied  by  fertile  plains  of  sugar  cane  and  indigo, 
and  watered  by  the  two  brooks,  Cuitimba  and  San  Pedro.  In  the 
inonth  of  June,  1759,  hollow  sounds  of  an  alarming  nature  were 
heard,  and  earthquakes  succeeded  each  other  for  two  months,  until, 
in  September,  flames  issued  from  the  ground,  and  fragments  of 
burning  rocks  were  thrown  to  prodigious  heights. 


VOLCANO    OF    JORULLO. 


287 


''''''"jj  ■ 


rf/j, 


THE    VOLCANO    OF    JORULLO. 


"  Six  volcanic  cones,  composed  of  scorise  and  fragmentary  lava, 
were  formed  on  the  line  of  a  chasm  which  ran  in  a  direction  from 
N.  N.  E.  to  S.  S.  W.  The  least  of  these  cones  was  300  feet  in 
height,  and  Jorullo,  the  central  volcano,  was  elevated  1,600  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  plain.  It  sent  forth  great  streams  of  basal- 
tic lava,  containing  included  fragments  of  rocks,  and  its  ejections 
did  not  cease  till  the  month  of  February,  1760. 

"  Humboldt  visited  the  country  more  than  forty  years  after  this 
occurrence,  and  was  informed  by  the  Indians,  that  when  they  re- 
turned, long  after  the  catastrophe,  to  the  plain,  they  found  the 
ground  uninhabitable  from  the  excessive  heat.  When  he  himself 
visited  the  place,  there  appeared  around  the  base  of  the  cones,  and 
spreading  from  them,  as  from  a  centre,  over  an  extent  of  four  square 
miles,  a  mass  of  matter  of  a  convex  Ibrm,  about  550  feet  high  at  its 
junction  with  the  cones,  and  gradually  sloping  from  them  in  all 
directions  towards  the  plain.  This  mass  was  still  in  a  heated  state, 
the  temperature  in  the  fissures  being  on  the  decrease  from  year  to 
year,  but  in  1780  it  was  still  sufficient  to  light  a  cigar  at  the  depth 
of  a  few  inches.  On  this  slightly  convex  protuberance,  the  slope 
of  which  must  form  an  angle  of  about  6°  with  the  horizon,  wer<i 
2ic 


288  THEORIES  OF  HUMBOLDT  AND  LYELL. 

thousands  of  flattish  conical  mounds,  from  six  to  nine  feet  high, 
which  as  well  as  large  fissures  traversing  the  plain,  acted  as  fume- 
roles,  giving  out  clouds  of  sulphuric  acid  and  hot  aqueous  vapor. 
The  two  small  rivers  before  mentioned  disappeared  during  the  erup 
tion,  losing  themselves  below  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  plain,  and 
reappearing  as  hot  springs  at  its  western  limit.  Humboldt  attributed 
the  convexity  of  the  plain  to  inflation  below  ;  supposing  the  ground, 
for  four  square  miles  in  extent,  to  have  risen  in  the  shape  of  a  blad- 
der to  the  elevation  of  550  feet  above  the  plain  in  the  highest  part. 
But  this  theory  is  by  no  means  borne  out  by  the  facts  described ; 
and  it  is  the  more  necessary  to  scrutinize  closely  the  proofs  relied 
on,  because  the  opinion  of  Humboldt  appears  to  have  been  received 
as  if  founded  upon  direct  observation,  and  has  been  made  the 
ground  work  of  other  bold  and  extraordinary  theories.  Mr.  Scrope 
has  suggested  that  the  phenomena  may  be  accounted  for  far  more 
naturally  by  supposing  that  lava  flowed  simultaneously  from  the  dif- 
ferent orifices,  and  principally  from  Jorullo,  united  widi  a  sort  of 
pool  or  lake.  As  it  poured  forth  on  a  surface  previously  flat,  it 
would,  if  its  liquidity  was  not  very  great,  remain  thickest  and 
deepest  near  its  source,  and  diminish  in  bulk  from  thence  towards 
the  limits  of  the  space  which  it  covered.  Fresh  supplies  were 
probably  emitted  successively  during  the  course  of  an  eruption 
which  lasted  a  year ;  and  some  of  these,  resting  on  those  first 
emitted,  might  only  spread  to  a  small  distance  from  the  foot  of  the 
cone,  where  they  would  necessarily  accumulate  to  a  great  height. 

"  The  showers,  also,  of  loose  and  pulverulent  matter  from  the  six 
craters,  and  principally  from  Jorullo,  would  be  composed  of  heavier 
and  more  bulky  particles  near  the  cones,  and  would  raise  the  ground 
at  their  base,  where,  mixing  with  rain,  they  might  have  given  rise 
to  the  stratum  of  black  clay  which  is  described  as  covering  the  lava. 
"The  small  conical  mounds  called  '  hornitos' or  little  ovens  may 
resemble  those  five  or  six  small  hillocks  which  existed  in  1823  on 
the  Vesuvian  lava,  and  sent  forth  columns  of  vapor,  having  been 
produced  by  the  disengagement  of  elastic  fluids  heaving  up  small 
dome-shaped  masses  of  lava.  The  fissures  mentioned  by  Humboldt 
as  of  frequent  occurrence,  are  such  as  might  naturally  accompany 
the  consolidation  of  a  thick  bed  of  lava,  contracting  as  it  congeals; 
and  the  appearance  of  rivers  is  the  usual  result  of  the  occupation 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  or  plain  by  lava,  of  which  there  are 
many  beautiful  examples  in  the  old  lava  currents  of  Auvergne.  The 
heat  of  the  '  hornitos '  is  stated  to  have  diminished  from  the  first ; 
and  Mr.  Bullock,  who  visited  the  spot  many  years  after  Humboldt, 


PRESENT    CONDITION RIVERS    OF    MECHOACAN.  289 

found  the  temperature  of  the  hot  spring  very  low,  —  a  fact  which 
seems  clearly  to  indicate  the  gradual  congelation  of  a  subjacent  bed 
of  lava  which,  from  its  immense  thickness,  may  have  been  enabled 
to  retain  its  heat  for  half  a  century.  The  reader  may  be  reminded, 
that  when  we  thus  suppose  the  lava  near  the  volcano  to  have  been, 
together  with  the  ejected  ashes,  more  than  500  feet  in  depth,  we 
merely  assign  a  thickness  which  the  current  of  Skaptar  Jokul 
attained  in  some  places  in  1783. 

"Another  argument  adduced  in  the  support  of  the  theory  of  infla- 
tion from  below,  was,  the  hollow  sound  made  by  the  steps  of  a  horse 
upon  the  plain  ;  which,  however,  proves  nothing  more  than  that  the 
materials  of  which  the  convex  mass  is  composed  are  light  and 
porous.  The  sound  called  ^' rimbombo^^  by  the  Italians,  is  very 
commonly  returned  by  made  ground  when  sharply  struck,  and  has 
Deen  observed  not  only  on  the  sides  of  Vesuvius  and  of  other  vol- 
canic cones  where  a  cavity  is  below,  but  also  in  plains,  such  as  the 
Campagna  di  Roma,  composed  in  a  great  measure  of  tuff  and  other 
porous  and  volcanic  rocks.  The  reverberation,  however,  may  be 
assisted  by  grottoes  and  caverns,  for  these  may  be  as  numerous  in 
the  lavas  of  Jorullo  as  in  many  of  those  of  Etna;  but  their  exist- 
ence would  lend  no  countenance  to  the  hypothesis  of  a  great  arched 
cavity,  four  square  miles  in  extent,  and  in  the  centre  550  feet  high.^ 

"  Mr.  Burkhart,  a  German  director  of  mines,  who  examined  Jo- 
rullo in  1827,  ascertained  that  there  had  been  no  eruption  there 
since  Humboldt's  visit  in  1803.  He  went  to  the  bottom  of  the 
crater,  and  observed  a  slight  evolution  of  sulphurous  acid  vapors, 
but  the  "hornitos"  had  ceased  entirely  to  give  forth  steam.  Dur- 
ing the  twenty-four  years  intervening  between  his  visit  and  that  of 
Humboldt,  vegetation  had  made  great  progress  on  the  flanks  of  the 
new  hills,  and  the  rich  soil  of  the  surrounding  country  was  once 
more  covered  with  luxuriant  crops  of  sugar  cane  and  indigo,  and 
there  was  an  abundant  growth  of  natural  underwood  on  all  the 
uncultivated  tracts."  ^ 

The  State  of  Mechoacan  is  extraordinarily  rich  in  rivers  and 
streams.  The  Lerma,  Balsas,  Zitacuaro,  Huetamo,  Cluranueco, 
Marquez,  Aztala,  Tlalpujahua,  and  some  smaller  streamlets  and 
brooks  are  found  in  its  vallies  ;  while  the  lakes  and  ponds  of  Cuizco 
or  Aaron,  Patzcuaro,  Huango,  Tanguato,  and  Huaniqueo   aflc)rd 

'  See  Scrcpe  on  Volcanoes,  p.  267. 

*Leonhard  and  Brown's  N^ues  Jarbuch,  1835,  p.  36.     See  Lyell's  Gaol.,  Am 
Ed.,  1  vol.,  p.  345 


290       CLIMATE INDIANS DEPARTMENTS AGRICULTURE. 

supplies  to  numerous  neighborhoods.  The  climate  of  Mechoacan  is 
regular,  not  liable  to  extraordinary  or  sudden  changes,  and  remark- 
ably genial.  On  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  its  vicinity,  as  in  the 
other  middle  and  southern  States  of  the  Confederacy,  agues  and 
intermittent  fevers  prevail ;  but  the  population  seems  to  have  in- 
creased considerably  since  the  beginning  of  this  century,  and  even 
in  a  larger  proportion  than  in  some  other  parts  of  Mexico.  In  1849, 
the  number  of  inhabitants  was  estimated  to  be  not  less  than  590,000. 
Three  Indian  tribes  still  dwell  within  its  borders  :  1st,  the  Taras- 
cos  ;  2d,  the  Otomies  ;  3d,  the  Chichimecas.  The  whole  southern 
half  of  the  State  is  peopled  with  Indians. 

Mechoacan  is  divided  into  4  departments  and  62  municipalities 

1.  Department  del  Norte,  with  14  municipalities. 

2.  "  del  Oricnte,  with  15  municipalities. 

3.  "  del  Sur,  with  11  municipalities. 

4.  "  del  Poniente,  with  22  municipalities. 

These  4  departments  contain  the  three  cities  of  Morelia,  Patz- 
cuARO,  and  Tzintzoutzan  ; — the  three  towns  of  Zitacuaro,  Za- 
mora,  and  Charo  ;  —  256  villages,  333  haciendas;  and  1,356  ra?ichos, 
w^hich  are  divided  among  83  parishes. 

The  agricultural  productions  of  Mechoacan  are  similar  in  charac- 
ter to  those  of  the  other  Western  States  of  Mexico  lying  within 
the  same  longitude.  The  best  sugar  plantations  are  about  12 
leagues  from  Patzcuaro.  At  the  foot  of  Jorullo,  cotton,  indigo, 
cacao  and  sugar  are  planted ;  and  mainoc  or  cassava,  potatoes  and 
yams  are  sown  in  genial  spots,  whilst  maiz,  wheat,  barley  and  ma- 
gueys  are  cultivated  in  the  higher  and  cooler  regions.  The  finest 
tropical  fruits  are  raised  in  the  warm  portions  of  the  State. 

The  capital  of  Mechoacan  is  Morelia,  sometimes  called  Vallado- 
lid,  or  Valladolid  de  Mechoacan.  Its  modern  title  is  derived  from 
the  name  of  the  insurgent  leader  Morelos. 

Morelia  lies  6,398  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  latitude 
19°  42'  North,  103°  12'  15"  W.  long,  from  Paris,— between  the 
two  streams  which  water  the  Valley  of  Olid.  It  is  a  small,  but 
handsome  town,  possessing  some  fine  churches,  and  a  charming 
passeo  and  alameda.  The  climate  is  mild  and  wholesome,  but  snow 
falls  occasionally  during  the  winter. 

Patzcuaro  lies  on  the  south-eastern  bank  of  the  lake  of  that  name. 

Tzintzoutzan  is  about  4  leagues  from  Patzcuaro,  in  a  northerly 
direction,  upon  the  banks  of  the  same  lake.  It  was  once  the  capi- 
tal of  the  ancient  Indian  Kingdom  of  Mechoacan,  but  is  now  only  a 


TOWNS MINES JALISCO BOUNDARIES.  291 

small  village  of  2,000  inhabitants,  who  have  nevertheless  bestowed 
on  it  the  title  of — "  City.''''  Some  relics  of  the  Tarascan  architec- 
ture are  said  to  be  found  at  this  place,  but  we  do  not  possess  any 
authentic  accounts  or  drawings  of  them. 

ZiTACUARO  is  the  capital  of  the  old  mining  district  7  leagues 
south  of  Angangueo,  6,451  feet  above  the  sea,  and  contains  about 
2000  inhabitants.  Many  small  Indian  villages  are  also  found  in  the 
neighborhood,  but  they  do  not  require  special  notice. 

Angangueo  is  a  mining  town  7  leagues  south  of  Tlalpujahua, 
with  about  1,900  inhabitants. 

San  Pedro  y  San  Pablo  de  Tlalpujahua,  also  a  mining  village  and 
district,  35  leagues  north  north-west  from  Mexico,  eastward  of 
Morelia,  and  about  6  leagues  south  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Lerma. 
It  lies  in  a  beautiful  mountain  region  at  the  foot  of  the  Cerro  del 
Gallo,  8,386  feet  above  the  sea.  Two  leagues  north  of  Tlalpuja- 
hua, is  the  Hacienda  de  Tepetongo,  remarkable  for  its  warm  springs, 
which  rising  amid  volcanic  rocks,  maintain  a  temperature  of  27° 
Reaumeur ;  and  are  freely  resorted  to  by  the  neighboring  Indians. 
Cuizco  ;  Huaniqueo  ;  Zamora  ;  Tancuancicuaro  ;  Tarecuato  ;  Tla- 
zazalca,  Tanguato,  are  the  remaining  towns  and  villages  in  this  part 
of  the  country  deserving  mention.  In  the  Department  del  JVorte^ 
we  find  Sirisicuaro  ;  Santa  Anna  ;  Araron  ;  Copandaro  ;  Teremen- 
do  ;  Pareachecuaro,  and  Tirepiteo.  In  the  Department  del  Oriente 
he  San  Felipe ;  Patambero  ;  Enadio  ;  Orocutui ;  Tusantla  ;  Clir- 
angangueo  ;  Tichiqueo  ;  Huetano  Pungarahuato  ;  and  Cayuca.  In 
the  Department  del  Sur,  are  Ario  ;  Tacambaro  ;  Turicato  ;  Chur- 
urauco ;  Santiago  Coalcoman ;  Uruapan  and  Tancitaro.  In  the 
Department  del  Poinente,  we  find  Chilchote,  with  about  4,700  in- 
habitants, and  Tincuindui. 

The  mining  districts  of  Mechoacan  are  Tlalpujahua,  Ano-ano-ueo, 
and  Ozumatlan.  Formerly,  the  mines  of  Zitacuaro,  Ingnaran,  and 
a  few  other  districts  were  somewhat  renowned  for  their  value ;  but, 
at  present,  they  are  either  entirely  abandoned  or  only  slightly  worked. 


THE    STATE   OF   JALISCO. 

The  present  State  of  Jalisco  and  former  Intendency  of  Guada- 
lajara, formed  together  with  Zacatecas,  the  old  Spanish  kingdom  of 
New  Galicia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Durango  ;  on  the 
north-west  by  Sinaloa  ;   on  the  north,  and  east  by  Zacatecas  and 


292       POPULATION,  RIVERS,  LAKES,  DIVISIONS,  MANUFACTURES 

Guanajuato ;  on  the  south  and  south-east  by  Mechoacan  and  the 
Territory  of  Colima ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  coast,  for  a 
distance  of  160  leagues.  The  State  stretches  from  19°  5'  to  23° 
55'  of  north  latitude ;  and  from  103°  45'  to  108°  28'  30"  west  lon- 
gitude from  Paris.     Its  population  is  estimated  at  about  700,000. 

The  greater  part  of  Jalisco  lies  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cor- 
dillera ;  and  its  table  lands,  which  resemble  those  of  the  great  pla- 
teau of  Mexico,  are  somewhat  cut  up  by  mountain  spurs.  The 
upper  regions  consequently  are  comparatively  sterile,  whilst  the  low- 
lands are  rich  and  fruitful. 

The  Sierras  of  Bayona,  in  the  north-west  end  of  Chalchihuit^c, 
in  the  north-east  of  the  State,  are  its  most  remarkable  mountain 
ranges.  The  Rio  Grande  de  Santiago  is  the  principal  stream  in 
Jalisco  ;  but  during  the  six  months  of  the  dry  season,  its  waters  are 
either  extremely  shallow  or  disappear  altogether.  The  Bayona  is 
a  boundary  between  this  State  and  Sinaloa. 

The  Lake  of  Chapala,  lies  about  fifteen  leagues  from  the  city 
of  Guadalajara,  and  forms  a  basin  among  the  mountains  of  36  to 
40  leagues  in  length  by  5  to  8  in  breadth.  Its  usual  depth  is  about 
six  and  a  half  fathoms.  Its  scenery  is  remarkably  beautiful,  and  it 
supplies  the  neighborhood  plentifully  with  fish  and  water-fowl. 

Jalisco  is  divided  into  eight  Cantons  or  Departments  :  —  Guada- 
lajara, Lagos,  La  Barca,  Sayula,  Etzatlan,  Autlan,  Tepic  and  Co- 
lotlan ;  —  containing  8  large  cities  and  tow^ns,  318  small  villages, 
387  haciendas  or  plantations,  and  2,534  ranchos  or  farms. 

The  agricultural  productions  of  Jalisco  combine  those  of  the 
tierras  calientas  and  the  tierras  templadas.  On  the  upper  plateaus, 
grain  and  agaves  are  chiefly  planted,  and  on  the  coast,  sugar  and 
cotton.  A  small  quantity  of  cochineal  is  also  raised,  and  in  the 
district  of  Autlan  de  la  Grana,  plantations  of  the  cacao-tree  have 
been  made.  All  the  fruits  of  the  tropical  and  temperate  zones  are 
readily  grown ;  sheep,  mules,  horses,  goats,  neat-cattle,  are  raised 
in  great  abundance,  and  not  less  than  10,000  head  of  cattle  are 
found  on  many  haciendas  de  Ganado. 

The  manufactures  of  Jalisco  are  chiefly  confined  to  rude  cotton 
fabrics  or  some  fanciful  articles  of  dress.  The  people  are  celebrated 
for  their  gold  and  silver  embroidery  upon  leather  which  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  saddles  and  horse  equipage. 

Nearly  all  the  importations  into  this  State  come  either  by  land 
from  San  Luis  Potosi,  the  city  of  Mexico,  or  San  Bias,  which  is 
the  chief  port  oif  Jalisco  on  the  Pacific.     A  large  portion  of  the 


AGRICULTURE FA  CTOK.I  E  S G  V.\  DA  LA  J  ARA TOWNS. 


293 


foreign  wares  are  doubtless  smuggled  into  the  interior,  or  introduced 
through  the  corrupt  connivance  of  custom-house  officers  along  the 
line  of  the  west  coast. 


I'LAZA    OF     QUAD  AL,  AJARA. 


The  city  of  Guadalajara,  150  leagues  from  Mexico,  the  capital 
of  Jalisco,  is  situated  upon  an  extensive  plain.  Its  handsome 
streets  are  airy,  and  many  of  the  houses  well  built.  There  are 
fourteen  squares,  twelve  fountains,  and  a  number  of  convents  and 
churches,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  magnificent  Cathedral,  whose 
owers  were  injured  by  an  earthquake  in  1818.  An  Alameda  is 
oeautifully  laid  out  with  irregular  alleys,  planted  with  trees,  inter- 
spersed with  flowers,  while,  in  the  centre,  a  fountain  throws  up  a 
constant  stream  of  excellent  water. 

Within  the  town,  the  Portales  are  ihe  principal  rendezvous,  and 
contain  numerous  shops  and  stalls  filled  with  European  and  East 
India  fabrics,  fruit  of  all  kinds,  earthenware  from  Tonala,  shoes, 
mangas,  saddlery,  birds,  sweetmeats  of  Calabazato,  and  a  thousand 
other  varieties  to  attract  the  passers  by.  Each  of  the  stalls  pays  a 
small  ground  rent  to  the  convents  of  Guadalajara,  and  thus  afford 
an  amole  revenue  to  the  brotherhoods. 


294       DE     LOS     LAGOS TKPIC SAN     BLAS MINES ISLANDS. 

The  population  of  the  town  may  be  estimated  at  50,000,  Its  air 
is  mild  and  wholesome,  and  durinj^  the  season  when  the  neighboring 
vegetation  is  refreshed  by  rains,  the  scenery  of  Guadalajara  is  con- 
sidered as  picturesque  as  that  of  the  citj'  of  Mexico. 

In  the  district  of  Lagos  lies  the  town  of  San  Juan  de  los  La- 
gos, in  a  deep  ravine,  almost  upon  a  level  with  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  and  with  its  mud  houses  and  wild  scenery,  offers  no  evi- 
dence of  the  gay  and  festive  appearance  it  presents  during  the  fa- 
mous annual  fair  which  is  held  in  it,  commencing  the  5th  of  Decem- 
ber, and  lasting  eight  days.  At  that  period,  San  Juan  is  the  resort 
of  merchants,  with  their  wares  from  all  parts  of  the  Republic,  and 
all  the  planters  or  wealthy  rancheros  within  an  hundred  leagues,  re- 
sort thither  with  their  families. 

There  is  a  beautiful  church  in  this  town,  dedicated  to  Our  Lady 
of  the  Lake,  and  medals  struck  in  honor  of  her  are  sold  at  the  doer 
of  the  temple. 

In  the  district  of  la  Barca  are  the  towns  of  La  Barca,  Tlaclii- 
chilco,  Chapala,  Axixis,  Ojotepec,  Aranda  and  Atotomilco. 

In  the  district  of  Etzatlan,  we  find  the  capital  village  of  Etzat- 
lan,  Cocula,  San  Martin,  Ameca,  Tequila  and  Agualco. 

In  the  district  of  Sayula,  are  Sayula,  Zapotlan  el  grande,  Zapo- 
titli,  Tuspan  and  Zacualco. 

In  the  district  of  Autlan,  we  find  Autlan  de  la  Grana,  a  town 
with  4,000  inhabitants,  La  Villa  de  la  Purificacion,  with  3,000, 
Mascota,  San  Sebastian  and  Tecolotlan,  which  are  large  villages. 

In  the  district  of  Tepic  lies  the  town  of  Tepic,  a  fine  well  built 
tow'n  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  mountain  plain,  2,963  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  next  to  the  capital,  the  finest  and  most  populous 
town  in  the  State.  Besides  this,  there  are  Pochotiilan,  Compos- 
tella,  Ahuacatlan,  S.  Maria  del  Oro,  Santiago,  Centispac,  Acapo- 
neta,  and  Guajicoria.  Three  leagues  north-east  of  the  latter,  a  warm 
spring  is  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Cerro  de  Huicalapa. 

The  capital  of  the  district  of  Colotlan,  is  San  Antonio  de  Colot- 
lan,  containing  about  4,000  inhabitants.  In  this  district  we  also 
find  Santa  Maria,  a  large  and  populous  village  lying  5,659  feet 
above  the  sea,  Huejucar,  Cartagena,  Tlaltenango  and  Bolafios,  a 
mining  town. 

The  best  sea-port  of  Jalisco  is  that  of  San  Bias,  whose  town  lies 
in  21°  32'  24"  north  latitude  and  107°  35'  48,"  west  longitude  from 
Paris,  upon  a  rock  of  basaltic  lava,  90  feet  high,  isolated  entirely 
on  three  sides,  and  reached  by  a  bad  road  on  the  fourth.  The  ha 
ven  is  land-locked,  and  the  anchoring  ground  good  and  deep  ;   but. 


MIMXG    REGION INDIANS CHARACTER    AND    HABITS.       295 

durino-  the  rainv  season  the  levels  around  the  rock  which  is  the 
fonndation  of  the  town,  become  filled  with  stagnant  pools  until  the 
whole  ailjacent  country  is  covered  with  water.  The  burning  sun 
of  the  coast  acts  rapidly  upon  these  shallow  marshes  and  fills  them 
with  insects  and  miasma.  San  Bias  soon  becomes  uninhabitable, 
and  its  population  betake  themselves  either  to  Tepic,  Guadalajara, 
or  the  first  elevations  of  the  mountains  in  the  interior. 

The  only  mining  region  of  any  note  in  Jalisco  is  that  of  Bolanos. 
The  mines  of  Hostotipaquillo,  near  Tepic,  are  now  abandoned ; 
those  of  Guichichila,  Santa  Maria  del  Oro,  Santa  Martin  and 
Ameca,  in  the  district  of  Etzatlan,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cocula, 
are  partially  wrought.  Among  the  unexplored  sites  of  base  and 
spurious  metals  in  this  State,  we  may  mention  those  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Composlella,  those  near  the  ranches  of  Rosa  Morada  and 
Buena  Vista,  towards  the  coast,  between  the  villages  of  Santiago 
and  Acaponeta,  and  those  near  Guajicoria,  north  of  the  last  named 
village. 

The  Islands  of  La  Isabela,  San  Juanico  and  Marias,  lie  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  Jalisco. 

The  aborigines  of  Jalisco,  formerly  warlike  and  devoted  to  a 
bloody  religion,  belong  to  the  tribes  of  Cazpanes,  Guachichiles  and 
Guamanes.  They  are  most  generally  tillers  of  the  ground,  ad- 
hering to  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  church,  and  they  have  par- 
ticular fondness  for  settling  a  while  in  lonely  and  wild  regions,  and 
for  changing  their  place  of  residence  frequently.  The  manners  and 
customs  of  the  Guachichiles  are  in  many  respects  peculiar.  They 
still  use  the  bow  and  arrow  as  weapons.  Their  quivers  are  made 
of  deer  and  shark  skins,  and  the  points  of  their  reed  arrows  are 
formed  of  a  hard  wood  and  rarely  of  copper.  The  garments  of  the 
men  consist  pf  a  kind  of  short  tunic,  roughly  made  by  themselves 
of  blue  or  brown  cotton  material,  with  a  girdle  hanging  down  in 
front  and  behind,  to  which  is  generally  added  a  pair  of  trousers  of 
tanned  goat  or  deer  skin.  Married  persons,  men  as  well  as  women, 
wear  straw  hats  with  broad  rims  and  high  crowns,  ornamented  with 
a  narrow  ribbon  of  bright  colored  wool  and  tassels.  Their  black 
bushy  hair  is  worn  very  long,  bound  with  bright  colored  ribbons  and 
tassels,  or  plaited  in  queus.  No  unmarried  person,  male  or  female, 
dare  wear  a  hat.  The  women  are  clothed  with  an  under  garment 
of  rough  wool  or  cotton  and  a  mantle  of  the  same  material,  which 
has  an  aperture  on  top  through  which  they  pass  their  heads.  When 
2l 


296  CHURCH    AND    SCHOOL EDUCATION BISHOPRIC. 

sober  they  are  peaceable  and  easily  controlled,  but  when  intoxi- 
cated violent  and  quarrelsome.  At  marriage  the  husband  has  the 
right  of  taking  his  wife  on  trial  and  of  sending  her  back  to  her  pa- 
rents after  some  time  if  she  should  not  please  him,  and  this,  even  if 
she  should  be  pregnant  by  him.  This,  however,  does  not  prevent 
such  a  female  marrying  afterwards.  If  she  gives  satisfaction,  the 
husband  has  the  ceremony  performed  by  a  priest  or  monk,  who  for 
this  purpose  makes  a  yearly  circuit,  and  often  performs  the  marriage 
and  a  baptism  at  the  same  time  ! 

Church  and  school  matters,  particularly  the  latter,  are  provided 
for  in  the  State  of  Jalisco  in  an  inferior  manner  to  other  parts  of  the 
Mexican  Republic.  A  few  years  ago,  there  were  in  the  entire 
State  only  113  elementary  schools  attended  by  not  more  than  6,167 
children.  The  instruction  was  limited  almost  exclusively  to  read- 
ing, for  of  this  entire  number,  according  to  official  accounts,  there 
were  not  more  than  2,092  learning  to  write.  For  instruction  in  the 
higher  branches  there  were  in  the  entire  State  only  two  indifferent 
institutions  located  in  the  capital  —  one  the  Seminario  Conciliar  for 
instruction  of  the  clergy,  with  thirteen  chairs  and  a  species  of  acade- 
my, founded  since  the  revolution,  called  El  Institute,  with  chairs  for 
anatomy,  modern  languages,  mineralogy,  mathematics,  &c.  The 
seminary  was  attended  by  120  boarders  and  329  day  scholars.  The 
institution  had  one  director,  ten  professors,  two  assistant  teachers, 
a  secretary,  etc.;  the  available  funds  of  the  same  consisted,  indepen- 
dent of  a  fee  paid  by  the  wealthier  scholars,  of  scarcely  any  thing  but 
an  addition  of  two  thousand  and  seventy  dollars  granted  by  the 
State  treasury.  Jalisco  felt  deeply  this  sad  condition  of  public 
instruction,  and  numerous  propositions  for  its  amelioration  and 
thorough  reformation  were  made,  but  money  was  wanting  and  fit 
men  for  the  professorships,  and  discretion  and  tact  on  the  part  of 
the  authorities,  and  it  is  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  since  that 
time  public  instruction  has  been  essentially  bettered.  The  "  Insti- 
tute" since  then  has  been  made  a  university.  The  State  forms  a 
separate  bishopric.  It  was  erected  in  the  year  1548,  and  embraced 
at  that  time  in  like  manner  the  present  States  of  Durango  and  New- 
Leon.  The  bishop  had  his  seat  first  at  Compostela  ;  in  1569  it  was 
transferred  to  Guadalajara.  In  1631  Durango  was  separated  from 
Jalisco,  and  in  1777  both  were  made  distinct  bishoprics.  The 
episcopal  chapter  of  Jalisco  consisted  of  three  dignitaries,  four 
canons  and  four  prebendaries. 


COLIMA- 


■CLIMATK PRODUCTIONS TOWNS. 


297 


THE    TERRITORY    OF    COLIMA. 

This  territory  is  bounded  north  by  Jalisco,  south  by  Mechoacan, 
east  by  both  of  these  States,  and  west  by  the  Pacific.  It  extends 
between  the  degrees  of  18°  18'  and  19°  10'  of  north  latitude,  and 
102°  51'  and  104°  2'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  Its  sur- 
face is  generally  level,  broken  by  hills,  from  among  which  rises 
the  mountain  of  Colima,  the  westernmost  of  Mexican  volcanoes.  It 
lies  in  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  Territory,  and  reaches  a  height 
of  9,200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  climate  of  Colima  is  warm  —  on  the  coast  it  is  hot  —  but 
the  territory  is  generally  considered  healthy  and  fruitful  in  all  por- 
tions. Its  population  is  estimated  at  about  45,000.  Cotton,  sugar, 
tobacco  and  cacao  are  produced  by  its  agriculturists,  while  on  the 
coast  large  quantities  of  salt  are  made  from  the  w^aters  of  the  sea. 
Rich  iron  deposites  have  been  recently  found,  and  individuals  have 
commenced  developing  this  important  source  of  national  wealth. 

The  chief  town  of  the  Territory  is  Colima,  about  two  leagues 
south  of  the  volcano,  containing  between  fifteen  and  twenty  thou- 
sand inhabitants.  The  other  towns  and  villages  are  Almoloyan, 
with  4,000  people,  Xala,  Ascatlan  and  Texupa.  The  haven  of 
Manzanillo,  or  port  of  Colima,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  seventeen 
leagues  west  of  the  capital ;  and  with  but  small  expense  to  govern- 
ment might  be  made  one  of  the  best  anchorages  in  the  Republic. 


THROWING    THE    L  A  Z  O. 


CHAPTER    IX. 


SINALOA BOUNDARIES CLIMATE DIVISIONS INDIANS PRO- 
DUCTS    TOWNS  MINES.  SONORA  BOUNDARIES  DIVI- 
SIONS   RIVERS CLIMATE  INDIANS TRADE TOWNS  

MINES. TERRITORY    OF    LOWER   CALIFORNIA BOUNDARIES 

CHARACTER  POPULATION  PRODUCTS  PEARLS SALT 

MINES SEALS  WHALES CLIMATE  PORTS  TOWNS  — 

POPULATION.  STATE   OF  GUERRERO. 


THE    STATE    OF    SINALOA. 

SiNALOA  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Jalisco,  on  the  east  by  Du- 
rango,  on  the  s^yfe~we*t  by  Chihuahua,  on  the  north  by  Sonora  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  coast  for  a  distance  of  200  leagues  along 
the  Gulf  of  California.  It  lies  between  22°  35'  and  27°  45'  of  north 
latitude  and  107°  and  113°  west  longitude  from  Paris.  The  river 
Canas  divides  it  from  Jalisco,  and  the  Mayo  from  Sonora.  Its 
length  from  south-east  to  north-west  is  about  180  leagues,  and  its 
breadth  in  the  centre  50  to  56  leagues.  This  State  is  partly  moun- 
tainous and  partly  level  coast  land.  On  the  east  it  lies  on  the  limits 
of  the  Cordilleras  of  Mexico.  The  levels  begin  in  the  west  near 
the  boundaries  of  Jalisco,  and  stretch  out  their  broad  sand-w^astes 
to  the  town  of  Alamos  and  the  river  Mayo,  until  they  are  lost  in  the 
State  of  Sonora.  This  region  is  scorched  with  a  blazing  sun,  and 
is  of  course  but  thinly  peopled  and  little  cultivated.  Near  the  city 
of  Alamos  a  more  genial  country  begins.  The  central  and  eastern 
parts  of  Sinaloa  are  rich  in  table  lands  and  vallies,  while  the  slopes 
of  the  mountains  are  thickly  wooded.  In.  the  interior  the  rains  are 
not  heavy  nor  the  w^armth  intense.  A  mild  and  genial  air  prevails 
during  the  whole  year ;  but  on  the  coast  the  heat  is  excessive, 
and  all  who  are  able  escape  from  it  into  the  interior. 

The  State  of  Sinaloa  is  divided  into  three  departments  : — 

1st.  The  department  del  Fuerte,  with  three  cantons,  viz  :  Fuerte, 
Alamos  and  Sinaloa. 

2d.  The  department  of  Culiacan,  with  two  cantons,  viz :  Culia- 
can  and  Cosala. 

3d.  The  department  of  Sail  Sebastian,  with  three  cantons,  viz  : 
Sebastian,  Rosario  and  Piastla. 

The  principal  streams  and  rivers  of  this  State  are  those  of  las  Canas, 
or  Rio  de  Bayona,  the  boundary  line  in  the  direction  of  Jalisco;  the 


INDIANS PRODUCTS TOWNS MINES SONORA.  299 

Rosario,  and  the  coast  streams  of  Mazatlan,  Piastla,  Elota  and  Ta- 
vala.  There  are  besides  these  the  Culiacan  or  Sacuda,  Imaya,  Mo- 
corito,  Oeroni,  del  Fuerte  and  Mayo. 

The  Indians  belong  to  various  tribes.  The  Coras,  Nayarites, 
and  Hueicolhues  are  found  in  the  south ;  north  of  these  dwell  the 
Sinaloas,  Cochitas  and  Tubares ;  and  still  further  north,  on  the 
streams  of  the  Oeroni,  Ahome,  del  Fuerte  and  Mayo,  we  find  some 
tribes  of  Guasares,  Ahomes  and  Ocronis.  The  Mayos  inhabit 
chiefly  the  regions  west  and  north-west  of  the  town  of  Alamos. 

The  white  inhabitants  of  this  State  are  chiefly  descendants  of 
emigrants  from  Biscay  and  Catalonia  in  Spain. 

Sinaloa  is  regarded  as  a  productive  State,  and  yields  good  crops 
of  grain  in  the  portions  which  are  easily  irrigated.  Wheat,  Indian 
corn  and  barley,  together  with  some  cotton,  sugar  and  tobacco,  are 
cultivated  successfully  ;  whilst  all  sorts  of  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
found  in  abundance. 

The  principal  towns  are  Mazatlan,  a  port  with  anchorage  on  the 
west  coast,  which  is  much  visited  by  European  and  American  ves- 
sels, and  has  been  the  seat  of  a  very  large  smuggling  trade  in  which 
the  wares  of  India  and  of  northern  nations  were  exchanged  for  the 
precious  metals  of  Mexico,  her  grain  and  skins. 

Asilos  del  Rosario  and  the  Villa  de  San  Sebastian  lie  in  the  de- 
partment of  San  Sebastian.  San  Ignacio  de  Piastla  is  the  capital 
of  a  canton.  Culiacan  lies  in  the  department  of  Culiacan.  Sinaloa 
or  Villa  de  San  Felipe  y  Santiago  de  Sinaloa,  the  Villa  del  Fuerte 
or  Montesclaros,  and  Alamos,  are  the  other  towns  of  note  in  this 
State. 

Sinaloa  is  rich  in  metallic  deposits  of  base  and  precious  metals, 
the  chief  of  which  are  found  at  Asilos  de  Rosario,  Cosala,  Copala, 
Alamos,  and  San  Jose  de  los  Mulalos. 


THE    STATE    OF    SONORA. 

Sonora  bounds  eastwardly  on  Chihuahua  and  New  Mexico ; 
southwardly  on  Sinaloa  ;  and  westwardly  on  the  Gulf  of  California 
for  238  leagues  between  the  mouths  of  the  Mayo  and  the  Colorado. 
Its  northern  boundary  is  now  the  line  which  divides  the  Republic 
of  Mexico  from  the  Cali.fornian  possessions  of  the  United  States. 

The  western  and  southern  portions  of  Sonora  are  generally  flat. 
In  the  south,  between  the  rivers  Mayo  and  Yaqui  and  the  Presidio 
of  Buena  Vista,  there  is  a  fruitful  region,  whose  productiveness  is 


300       BOUNDARIES,  DIVISIONS,  RIVERS,  CLIMATE,  INDIANS,  ETC. 

enhanced  by  a  number  of  small  lakes  formed  during  the  rainy  season 
on  the  levels,  which  are  used  by  the  careful  agriculturists  for  the 
irrigation  of  their  farms.  On  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  State, 
the  ridges  of  the  Cordillera  begin  to  rise,  until  they  tower  into 
the  massive  mountains  which  form  the  Sierra  Madre,  among  the 
spurs  of  which  many  valuable  metallic  deposits  have  been  discov- 
ered. The  fine  and  productive  vallies  of  Bavispe,  Oposura,  Sonora 
and  Dolores  are  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  mountain  country. 

Sonora  is  divided  into  two  Departments  : 

1st.  The  Department  of  Arispe,  with  three  cantons,  viz  :  Arispe, 
Oposura  and  Altar. 

2nd.  The  Department  of  Horcasitas,  with  three  cantons,  viz : 
Horcasitas,  Ostimuri,  and  Petic. 

The  chief  rivers  are  the  Mayo,  the  boundary  in  the  direction  of 
Sinaloa  ;  the  Yaqui  or  Hiaqui ;  the  Rio  Grande  de  Bavispe  ;  Opo- 
sura ;  Sonora ;  Dolores ;  Guayamas ;  Rio  de  la  Ascencion ;  San 
Ignacio  ;  Gila;  San  Francisco  or  Rio  Azul;  San  Pedro;  Santa 
Maria  and  the  Rio  Colorado. 

The  climate  of  Sonora  is  warm  throughout  the  year ;  but  the 
early  spring  is  subject  to  remarkable  and  rapid  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, and  to  sudden  variations  of  wind  between  the  north  and  east. 
From  April  to  the  end  of  September  the  thermometer  ranges  between 
75°  and  84°  Fahrenheit. 

A  large  portion  of  Sonora  is  occupied  by  Indian  tribes,  some  of 
which  are  partially  agricultural  where  they  have  been  brought  into 
contact  with  the  whites  ;  but  the  greater  portion  may  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  wild  nomadic  bands  which  have  hitherto  harassed 
the  northern  settlements  of  Mexico.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the 
State,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sonora  and  Oposura,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  town  of  Arispe  and  the  mineral  region  of  Nocasari,  we  find 
large  numbers  of  the  Opatas.  North  of  the  Ascencion,  and 
stretching  far  inland  from  the  coast,  are  the  Pimos  Altos,  the  most 
northerly  bands  that  have  submitted  to  the  influences  of  Christianity 
or  of  partial  civilization.  The  nomadic  tribes  In  the  north  and 
north-east  of  the  State  are  Papayos  or  Papabi-Otawas,  the  Yumas, 
the  Cucapas  or  Cupachas,  the  Cajuenches,  the  Coanopas,  the  Apa- 
ches Tontos,  the  Cocomaricopas,  the  Pimo  Galenos,  the  Apache 
Gilenos,  Apache  Mimbrenos,  and  Apache  Chiricaguis.  Of  all  these 
wild  and  savage  tribes,  the  Apaches  are  the  most  uncontrollable. 

The  trade  of  Sonora  is  chiefly  carried  on  at  Guyamas,  in  latitude 
27°  40'  N.  and  114°  W.  longitude  from  Paris,  —  one  of  the  best  har- 
bors in  West  Mexico,  in  a  healthy  region,  containing  about  3,000  in- 


TOWNS TERRITORY    LOWER  CALIFORNIA BOUNDARIES.       301 

habitants  ;  —  and  at  Petic,  forty  leagues  north  north-east  from  Guya- 
raas,  in  about  29°  20'  of  north  latitude.  The  latter  town,  contain- 
ing about  8,000  inhabitants,  is  the  depot  for  goods  imported  through 
the  port  of  Guyamas  which  are  designed  for  the  northern  districts 
of  Mexico.  Besides  these  two  important  places,  there  are  the  towns 
of  San  Miguel  Horcasitas,  with  2,500  inhabitants ;  Arispe,  with 
3,000;  San  Jos6  de  Guyamas  350  to  400;  Bayoreca ;  Onabas; 
Presidio  de  Buena  Vista;  El  Aguage;  Ures ;  Babiacora;  Bana- 
mitza  ;  Batuc  ;  Matape  ;  Oposura  ;  Presidio  de  Bavispe  ;  Presidio 
de  Fronteras  ;  San  Ildefonso  Cieneguilla ;  Presidio  de  Santa  Ger- 
trudis  del  Altar ;  Oquitoa ;  Presidio  de  la  Santa  Cruz  ;  Presidio  de 
Tuscon ;  and  Presidio  de  Tubac. 

The  mineral  characteristics  are  similar  to  those  of  Sinaloa. 


THE   TERRITORY   OF   LOWER   CALIFORNIA. 

The  Territory  of  Lower  California  is  comprehended  in  that  long 
peninsular  strip  of  land  which  extends  from  the  present  southern 
boundary  of  the  United  States  to  Cape  St.  Lucas,  and  which  is 
washed  on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  California  from  the  point  where 
the  Rio  Colorado  debouches  into  it,  and  on  the  west  by  the  waves 
of  the  Pacific  ocean.  It  lies  between  32°  31'  59"  58'",  and  Cape 
St.  Lucas,  in  about  22°  45'  of  north  latitude. 

The  country,  generally,  is  represented  to  be  one  of  the  most  un- 
attractive in  the  warm  or  temperate  regions.  The  peninsula, 
about  700  miles  long,  varies  in  breadth  from  thirty  to  one  hundred 
miles,  its  mean  breadth  being  about  fifty.  The  surface  of  this  re- 
gion is  formed  of  an  irregular  chain  of  rocks,  hills  and  mountains, 
which  run  throughout  the  central  portion  of  its  whole  length, 
and  some  of  which  attain  a  height  of , nearly  five  thousand  feet. 
Amid  these  dreary  ridges  there  are  occasionally  found  a  few  shel- 
tered spots  which,  though  deluged  by  the  torrents,  have  not  been 
swept  clear  of  productive  earth,  and  in  these  there  is  a  fertile  soil  of 
small  extent,  yielding  a  thin  but  nutritious  grass.  There  are  few 
streams  or  springs;  trees  of  magnitude  are  scarce;  and  the  heavy 
showers  falling  on  the  central  rocky  peaks  and  eminences  are 
drained  on  the  east  and  west  into  the  Pacific  and  Gulf  of  California 
by  the  sloping  sides  of  the  peninsula,  so  as  to  bear  with  them  into 
the  sea  a  large  portion  of  cultivable  soil.  In  the  plains  and  in 
most  of  the  dry  beds  of  rivers,  water  can  be  obtained  by  digging 
wells  only  a  few  feet  deep,  and  wherever  irrigation  has  been  adopted 


302  CHARACTER POPULATION PRODUCTS PEARLS. 

by  means  of  these  wells,  the  produce  of  the  fields  has  abundantly 
rewarded  the  agriculturist.  Much  of  the  soil  is  of  volcanic  origin, 
being  washed  from  the  mountains,  as  we  have  already  stated,  and 
its  yield,  by  aid  of  irrigation,  is  alleged  to  be  quite  marvellous.  It 
is  probable  therefore,  notwithstanding  the  unfavorable  aspect  of  the 
country  as  seen  by  a  casual  visiter,  that  its  evil  repute  is  chiefly 
owing  to  the  indolent  and  roving  character  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
that  in  the  hands  of  an  industrious  and  agricultural  people,  it  would 
be  capable  of  supporting  a  population  much  more  numerous  than 
the  present.  At  an  earlier  period  of  the  Territory's  history,  under 
the  dominion  of  the  missions,  when  very  small  portions  of  the 
soil  were  cultivated,  and  even  those  but  rudely  by  the  Indians,  the 
four  districts  of  San  Jose,  Santiago,  San  Antonio  and  Todos  Santos, 
contained  35,000  souls,  whereas  the  present  population  of  the  whole 
peninsula  is  probably  not  more  than  nine  or  ten  thousand. 

During  the  epoch  when  the  missions  of  California  still  flourished 
the  general  barrenness  of  this  territory  did  not  subdue  the  energy 
of  the  priestly  fathers,  who  in  the  sheltered  vallies  near  the  different 
mission  sites,  which  were  carefully  selected,  produced  Indian  corn, 
grapes,  dates,  figs,  quinces,  peaches,  pears  and  olives.  Much  of 
these  fruits  was  preserved  and  exported  to  the  opposite  coast  of 
Mexico.  But  these  articles,  together  with  pearls,  tortoise-shell, 
bullocks'  hides,  dried  beef,  soap  and  cheese  constituted  the  whole 
product  and  commerce  of  the  peninsula.  The  waters  of  the  gulf 
were  in  former  days  more  valuable  to  the  Californians  than  the 
shores.  During  the  sixteenth  century  the  pearl  fishery  produced  a 
valuable  revenue,  and  towards  its  close,  six  hundred  and  ninety-seven 
pounds  of  the  precious  article  were  imported  into  Seville  from  Ame- 
ica ;  but  at  the  last  authentic  dates  of  twenty  years  past,  the  fishery 
in  lower  California  had  dwindled  into  utter  insignificance.  Four 
vessels  and  two  boats  were  alone  engaged  in  it;  and  the  two  hun- 
dred divers  who  still  searched  the  bottom  of  the  coasts  in  their 
perilous  trade,  obtained  only  eighty-eight  ounces  of  pearls  valued 
at  little  more  than  thirteen  thousand  dollars. 

The  pearl  fishery  seems,  however,  to  have  revived  somewhat, 
shortly  anterior  to  the  war  with  the  United  States,  and  a  report  from 
one  of  our  most  intelligent  officers  in  the  Pacific  at  that  period,  states 
that  the  annual  exportation  of  pearls  amounted  then  to  between  forty 
and  fifty  thousand  dollars. 

Valuable  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper  and  lead  are  known  to  exist 
in  the  peninsula,  and  although  only  a  few  are  rudely  worked,  the 
labor  expended  on  them  is  amply  rewarded.    The  salt  mines,  on  the 


SALT MINES SF.ALS  WHALES CLIMATE PORTS.       303 

Inland  of  Carmen,  in  the  Gulf  of  California,  near  Loreto,  are  capable 
of  supplying  the  whole  coast  of  Mexico  and  California.  The  surface 
of  the  lake  producing  this  valuable  mineral  is  covered  with  a  solid 
crust  several  feet  in  thickness,  which  is  cut  in  blocks,  like  ice,  and 
conveyed  to  the  beach  by  convicts  under  the  order  of  the  Governor 
of  Lower  California,  who  has  hitherto  enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  with  Mazatlan  and  San  Bias. 

The  country  about  La  Paz,  situated  on  the  east  coast,  south  of 
the  bay  of  La  Paz,  and  near  the  Pichilingue  cove,  is  represented  to 
be  valuable  for  grazing.  Some  of  the  silver  mines  near  San  Anto- 
nio, about  forty  miles  south,  are  productively  wrought.  Gold  dust 
and  virgin  gold  are  brought  to  La  Paz,  and  about  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars  oiplatapiiia,  are  exported  fiom  it  yearly.  The  whole 
coast  abounds  with  fish,  clams  and  oysters.  Among  the  islands  of 
the  gulf  immense  number  of  seal  are  constantly  ibund,  and  the 
whaling  grounds  on  the  Pacific  coast  are  of  great  value.  Magda- 
lena  bay  alone  has,  at  one  time,  contained  as  many  as  twenty-eight 
sail,  all  engaged  in  this  fishery. 

The  coasts  of  Lower  California  are  fiat,  sandy,  irregular,  and 
frequently  indented  by  coves,  inlets  and  bays,  while  many  islands 
lie  near  and  border  them  in  the  gulf.  The  climate  is  regarded  as 
healthful ;  the  winter  is  short,  and  frost  and  ice  are  unknown.  A 
pure  air  and  a  deep  blue  slcy  surround  and  span  the  region ;  but  the 
heat  of  summer  is  intens-e,  patching  the  thin  soil,  and  rendering  life 
almost  insupportable  in  the  more  exposed  regions,  or  in  the  narrow 
and  confined  glens. 

The  principal  ports  visited  by  merchantmen  or  whalers  on  the 
west  or  Pacific  coast,  are  :  1st.  That  of  San  Quentin,  in  latitude  30*^ 
23',  which  is  said  to  afford  a  secure  -anchorage  for  vessels  of 
every  description,  and  to  be  sufficient  for  the  accommodation  of  a 
numerous  fleet;  and  2dly,  the  bay  of  Magdalena,  which  has  ac- 
quired notoriety  from  being  resorted  to  every  winter  by  numbers  of 
whalers.  It  is  protected  by  the  two  large  islands  of  San  Lazaro  and 
Margari'+a,  and  possesses  many  of  the  characteristics  of  an  inland 
sea,  being  navigable  for  the  distance  of  more  than  a  hundred  miles. 
It  has  several  commodious  anchorages.  The  bay  of  San  Jose,  near 
Cape  San  Lucas,  is  ordinarily  frequented  by  coasters,  and  is  some- 
times visited  by  whalers  and  men-of-war,  being  the  outlet  of  a  val- 
ley, unusually  fertile  for  Lower  California,  which  extends  upwards 
of  forty  miles  inland,  and  aflfords  probably  the  best  watering  and 
provisioning  place  on  the  peninsula,  though  it  is  a  mere  roadstead 
yielding  no  protection  in  the  season  of  south-easters 
2m 


304  TOWNS POPULATION STATE    OF    GUERRERO. 

On  the  w€st  coast  of  the  Peninsula,  north  of  Cape  San  Lucas, 
and  between  that  point  and  the  24th  degree  of  N.  latitude  are  the  bays 
of  San  Barnabe  and  De  los  Muertos.  Between  the  24th  and  25th 
degrees  is  the  bay  of  La  Paz,  an  extensive  indenture,  protected  to- 
wards the  gulf  by  numerous  isles  and  islets  and  affording  excellent 
anchorages  for  vessels  of  any  d>aft  or  any  number.  In  this  vicinity 
are  the  principal  pearl  fisheries  as  well  as  the  most  reputed  mining 
districts.  It  is  the  outlet  of  the  cultivated  valley  of  Todos  Santos 
and  of  the  produce  of  the  whole  region  lying  between  Santiago  and 
Loreto.  The  cove  or  estero,  opposite  the  town  of  La  Paz,  furnishes 
spacious  and  secure  anchorage,  which  may  be  reached  by  vessels 
drawing  not  more  than  eighteen  or  twenty  feet ;  while  the  cove  of 
Pichilingue,  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the  bay,  about  six  miles 
from  the  town,  affords  anchorage  for  vessels  of  any  size;  but  the 
inner  bay  can  be  reached  only  by  merchantmen.  The  bar,  how- 
ever, between  the  two  is  only  a  few  yards  in  extent ;  and  if  the 
importance  of  the  place  should  ever  justify  it,  the  channel  might  be 
deepened  without  much  expensive  labor.  There  is  an  anchorage 
at  Loreto  at  about  26°  north,  and  there  are  several  places  of  resort 
and  anchorage  in  the  bay  of  Muleje,  between  26°  and  27°,  but 
none  are  deemed  secure  for  large  or  small  craft  at  any  season. 
Several  other  ports  are  found  on  the  gulf  further  north,  which  are 
visited  occasionally  by  coasters,  but  the  region  is  as  yet  quite  unex- 
plored, and  their  commercial  or  military  value  is  of  course  un- 
known. Beyond  the  bay  of  Mulej6,  which  is  nearly  opposite  the 
Mexican  port  of  Guyamas  on  the  main  continent,  the  gulf  is  so 
much  narrower  than  further  south,  that  it  becomes  in  a  great  degree 
a  harbor  itself. 

The  only  towns  of  any  importance  on  the  peninsula  are  those  of 
Loreto,  and  La  Paz  the  capital  and  seat  of  government.  The  pop- 
ulation is  of  course  chiefly  an  Indian  and  mixed  race,  for  but  few 
whites  were  ever  tempted  to  prolong  their  residence  in  this  lonely 
and  unattractive  region. 


THE     STATE    OF    GUERRERO. 

This  State  was  created  by  virtue  of  the  fourth  article  of  the  Acta 
de  Reformas,  passed  on  the  18th  of  May,  1847,  amending  the  con- 
stitution of  1847.  By  this  article  it  was  agreed  that  the  State  of 
Guerrero  should  be  formed  of  the  districts  of  Acapulco,  Chi- 
lapa,  Tasco  and  Tlapa,  and  the  municipality  of  Coyucan, — the  three 


STATE    OF    GUERRERO. 


305 


first  of  which  belonged  to  the  State  of  Mexico,  the  fourth  to  PueWa, 
and  the  fifth  to  Mechoacan  —  provided  the  legislatures  of  these  three 
States  gave  their  consent  within  three  months. 

It  is  understood  that  this  consent  was  yielded,  but  as  the  organi- 
zation of  the  new  State  has  not  been  received,  no  elucidation  of  the 
geography  of  the  region  can  be  given  except  in  the  descriptions  of 
the  three  original  States  whose  districts  were  surrendered,  and  to 
which  the  reader  is  referred  in  the  preceding  pages. 


nr^W^imii 


ANCIENT    HEADS     MADE    OF    CLAY. 


CHAPTER    X. 
INTERIOR    STATES 


STATE    OF    QUERETARO BOUNDARIES DIVISIONS CHARACTER- 
ISTICS    RIVERS  POPULATION     AND     CLIMATE  DISTRICTS, 

ETC. AGRICULTURAL     PRODUCTS  FORESTS  FACTORIES 

CITIES  MINES.  STATE    OF    GUANAJUATO BOUNDARIES 

EXTENT SOIL  LAKE  YURIRAFUNDARO CLIMATE EFFECT 

OF   MALADIES  PRODUCTIONS VINE OLIVE DIVISIONS 

POPULATION CITY     OF     GUANAJUATO  TOWNS    IN    THE     STATE 

HACIENDA    OF    JARAL MINES SILVER COPPER LEAD 

CINNABAR.  ZACATECAS BOUNDARIES EXTENT AGRI- 
CULTURE   DIVISIONS  POPULATION  TOWNS ZACATECAS 

AGUAS   CALIENTES,   ETC. PRODUCT  AND  VALUE   OF    ZACATE- 

CAN  MINES.  RUINS  OF  QUEMADA  IN  ZACATECAS. 

THE    STATE    OF    QUERETARO. 

The  State  of  Queretaro,  one  of  the  smallest  members  of  ll)e  Re- 
public, is  situated  between  19°  35'  42"  7'"  and  21°  17'  16"  45"'  of 
north  latitude.  By  trigonometrical  surveys  made  in  1837,  the  State 
was  found  to  contain  869  square  leagues,  which  were  divided  be- 
tween the  six  districts  as  follows: 

1  District  of  Queretaro     .     .     .     .      157  square  leagues. 

2  "  San  Juan  del  Rio     .     .  128  " 

3  "  Cadereyta    .     .     .     .  115^  " 

4  "  Toliman 114f  " 

5  "  Jalpam 203^  " 

6  "  Amealco. 150f  " 


Total  869 

This  State  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  State  of  San  Luis  Potosi, 
west  and  south-west  by  Guanajuato  and  Mechoacan,  south  by  Mexi- 
co, and  east  by  Mexico  and  Vera  Cruz.  It  lies  entirely  on  the  cen- 
tral plateau  of  the  Cordillera,  and  is  consequently  intersected  by 
numerous  mountain  spurs  and  elevated  hills,  some  of  which  are  en- 
tirely bare,  while  others  are  covered  with  forests  of  various  kinds  of 
wood.  The  plains  are  frequently  cut  up  by  deep  barrancas  or  gul- 
lies, rivers  and  streamlets.  The  agricultural  portions  of  the  State  are 
consequently  confined  chiefly  to  the  vallies  of  San  Juan  del  Rio, 
Queretaro,  Cadereyta,  Amealco,  Toliman  and  Jalpam,  in  which  the 
soil,  enriched  by  the  vegetable  products  and  debris  drained  from  the 


S;3iai!H';!J;!lllW 


TiSlifEajB  Tf  "■  '//^-vrfEr-".^  ■='\T^i/«'tfl'  'IVlj' 


RIVERS POPULATIOX    AM5     CLI-MATP. DISTRICTS,  ETC.       307 

mountain  skies,  is  usually  found  to  be  very  productive.  Queretaro 
is  generally  remarked  by  travellers  for  the  picturesque  character  of 
its  scenery  and  the  beautiful  site  of  its  haciendas,  cities  and  ran- 
ches. Mountainous  as  is  this  region,  it  has  no  single  elevation  of 
remarkable- character  in  the  geography  of  the  republic.  In  a  coun- 
try thus  physically  formed  and  raised  above  the  sea,  important  rivers 
are,  of  C(  urse,  not  easily  encountered,  and  although  there  are  fifteen 
streams  which  are  dignified  by  the  inhabitants  with  this  title,  the 
only  two  of  importance  are  the  Tula  or  Rio  de  Montezuma,  the 
boundary  between  the  States  of  Mexico  and  Vera  Cruz,  and  the 
Rio  Pate  which  has  cut  its  deep  and  stony  bed  in  the  porphyritic 
rock  near  San  Juan  del  Rio.  The  temperature  of  the  whole  region 
is  exceedingly  cool  and  the  climate  is  agreeable  and  healthy. 

The  population   assigned  to  the  State  in    1845  was   180,161  , 
classified  thus: 

Spaniards,  Creoles  and  Europeans,    .  .         .     36,032 

Indians, 90,080 

Castes, 54,049 


Total, 180,161 

Queretaro  is  divided  into  six  districts,  comprising  eight  partidos. 

1st.  The  prefecture  of  Queretaro,  with  the  partidos  of  the  capi- 
tal and  of  La  Canada ;  in  these  two  are  found  the  town  of  San 
Francisco  Galileo,  the  villages  of  Santa  Rosa  and  Huimilpam,  and 
the  hamlets  of  Santa  Maria  Magdalena  and  San  Miguel  Carillo. 
46|  inhabitants  to  each  square  league. 

2d.  The  district  of  the  municipality  of  San  Juan  del  Rio  contains 
the  village  of  Tequisquiapam,  the  hamlets  of  San  Pedrito,  San  Se- 
bastian, and  the  rancheria  of  La  Barranca  de  los  Cocheros.  71  in- 
habitants to  each  square  league. 

3d.  The  district  of  the  municipality  of  Cadeyreta  which  contains 
the  mining  posts  of  El  Doctor  and  Maconi,  and  the  villages  of  San 
Jose  Vizarron,  San  Gaspar,  San  Sebastian  de  Brual,  and  San  Mi- 
guel Tetillas.     183|  inhabitants  to  each  square  league. 

4.  The  district  of  Santa  Maria  Amealco,  containincr  the  villao-e 
of  Huimalpam  and  the  hamlets  of  San  Jose  de  Ito,  San  Bartolo, 
San  Miguel  Deti,  San  Junn  de  Giied6,  San  Miguel  Tlaxcaltepec, 
San  Pedro  Tenango,  San  Ildefonso,  and  Santiago  Mexquitlan.  80 
inhabitants  to  each  square  league. 

5th.  The  district  of  San  Pedro  Toliman,  contains  the  villages  of 
San  Francisco  Tolimanejo,  Santa  Maria  Peiiamillera,  San  Miguel 
Toliman,  San  Miguel  de  las  Palmas,  a  mission  station,  Santo  Do- 


308   AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS FORESTS,  FACTORIES,  CITIES. 

mingo  de  Soriano,  San  Antonio  de  Bernal,  and  the  mining  post  of 
Rio  Blanco.     213  inhabitants  to  the  square  league. 

6th.  The  district  of  Jalpam,  contains  three  partidos  and  in  these 
there  are  two  sub-prefectures,  which  are  Landa  and  Aguacatlan  a 
mining  post ;  besides  these  there  are  the  villages  of  Conca,  San- 
cillo,  Bucareli,  Arroyoseco,  Tancoyol  and  Xilapan  ;  the  mining  posts 
of  San  Jose  de  los  Amoles  and  San  Pedro  Escanela ;  and  the  mis- 
sions of  Tilaco  and  Pacula.     64  inhabitants  to  the  square  league. 

The  whole  State  is  calculated  to  contain  124  haciendas  or  large 
plantations,  and  392  raiichos  or  farms,  while  nearly  30,000  of  its 
inhabitants  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits. 

The  products  of  the  soil  are  similar  to  those  already  described  in 
the  other  States  on  the  central  plateau.  In  the  valleys  some  of  the 
tropical  productions  are  found,  but  grain  and  cattle  form  the  staples 
of  the  farmer's  care.  Very  thick  forests  are  seldom  found  in  any 
part  of  the  State,  and  many  regions  are  almost  entirely  denuded. 
It  will  be  seen  from  our  chapter  upon  the  manufactures  of  Mexico, 
that  Queretaro  is  remarkable  for  the  zeal  and  success  with  which  it 
has  applied  itself  to  this  branch  of  industry.  Most  of  the  woollen 
fabrics  of  this  State  are  made  of  the  Lana  de  Chinchorro  which  is 
produced  within  its  limits,  and  is  commonly  sold  at  $15  per  100  lbs. 
Besides  this  there  is  a  species  of  cotton,  raised  in  some  of  the  dis- 
tricts, used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  favorite  kind  of  mantas,  shawls 
and  rebozos.  The  trade  of  the  State  is  carried  on  chiefly  with 
Mexico,  Vera  Cruz  and  San  Luis  Potosi. 

The  principal  city  is  that  of  Queretaro,  the  capital  and  seat  of 
government,  lying  in  19°  58'  2"  15'"  N.  latitude,  and  1°  5'  W.  longi- 
tude from  the  meridian  of  Mexico,  6,365  feet  above  the  sea.  This 
fine,  picturesque  and  well  built  town,  containing  about  50,000  in- 
habitants, is  situated  on  the  sides  and  summit  of  converging  hills, 
and  is  divided  into  several  parishes,  or  curatos,  some  of  which  are 
in  the  body  of  the  city  and  others  in  the  suburbs,  being  separated 
from  the  rest  by  a  scant  stream  which  has  been  dignified  with  the 
title  of  El  Rio  — the  river.  Queretaro  stands  nearly  7,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  enjoys  a  delightful  temperature.  A 
noble  aqueduct,  two  miles  in  length,  with  arches  ninety  feet  high, 
spanning  a  plain  of  meadow  land — joins  a  tunnel  from  the  opposite 
hills,  and  supplies  the  city  with  an  abundance  of  excellent  water  from 
a  distance  of  two  leagues.  It  is  a  magnificent  and  enduring  struc- 
ture, and  the  honor  of  its  erection  is  due  to  the  taste  and  judgment 
of  the  Marquis  de  Valero  del  Aguila,  who  caused  it  to  be  built  at 
his  own  cost  during  his  viceroy al  government  of  Mexico.     Quer6- 


MINES STATE  OF  GUANAJUATO,  BOUNDARIES,  EXTENT.   309 

taro  has  become  interesting  in  our  history,  inasmuch  as  it  was  the 
city  in  which  the  treaty  of  peace  between  Mexico  and  the  United 
States  was  finally  ratified  by  the  Mexican  Congress  in  1848. 

The  other  important  towns  are  those  of  San  Juan  del  Rio,  San 
Pedro  de  la  Canada,  and  Cadereyta. 

The  chief  mining  district,  and  the  only  one  of  any  note  in  the 
State,  is  that  of  El  Doctor^  in  the  district  of  Cadereyta.  Its  princi- 
pal veins  are  those  of  El  Doctor  and  San  Cristoval ;  but  famous  as 
they  once  were,  they  are  now  of  but  little  importance.  The  quick- 
silver mine  of  San  On6fre,  in  the  same  region,  is  also  failing. 

The  mining  districts  of  El  Doctor,  Rio  Blanco,  Maconi  and  Es- 
canelella,  contain  216  mines — divided  as  follows :  five  of  gold  ;  193 
of  silver ;  7  of  copper ;  1  of  lead ;  1  of  tin ;  6  of  quicksilver ;  2 
of  antimony;   1  of  jaldre. 


THE    STATE    OF    GUANAJUATO. 

The  State  of  Guanajuato  is  comprehended  between  20°  and  21° 
49'  of  north  latitude,  and  0°  31'  05"  and  2°  51'  of  longitude  west 
from  the  meridian  of  Mexico,  and  is  situated  upon  the  grand  Mexi- 
can Cordillera.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  State  of  San 
Luis  Potosi,  on  the  south  by  Mechoacan,  on  the  east  by  Queretaro, 
and  on  the  west  by  Jalisco  and  Zacatecas.  Its  superficial  extent  is 
1,545  Mexican  leagues  of  26|^  to  the  degree.  With  the  exception 
of  the  State  of  Queretaro,  Guanajuato  is  the  smallest  of  the  Republic, 
yet  it  contains,  comparatively,  the  greatest  number  of  inhabitants,  as 
will  be  seen  hereafter. 

Large  portions  of  the  soil  of  Guanajuato  are  fertile ;  especially 
the  magnificent  and  productive  plains  of  the  Bajio,  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  State,  which  extend  for  more  than  34  leagues  from 
Apasco  to  beyond  Leon;  —  and,  in  the  north,  where  the  splendid 
plains  or  Llanos  of  San  Felipe  spread  far  and  wide. 

All  the  Sierra  of  Santa  Rosa  forms  a  chain  of  porphyritic  moun- 
tains and  elevations  of  greater  or  less  elevation,  which  pass  under 
the  general  name  of  Cerros.  The  highest  of  these,  two  leagues 
north  of  the  capital  is  known  as  the  Cerro  de  los  Llanitos.  It  rises 
to  the  height  of  3,359  varas  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  the 
loftiest  in  the  State.  Besides  these,  there  are  the  Cerros  del  Gigante, 
El  Cubilete,  La  Bufa,  La  Garrida,  La  Beata  and  San  Juan  de 
Mendoza, 

The  river  Lerma,  anciently  known  as  Tolotlan,  and  commonly 
'^fsVnated  in  Guanajuato  as  the  Rio  Grande,  is  the  only  one  which 


310       STREAMS,   LAKE    YURIRAPUNDARO,   CLIMATE,   EFFECT    OF 

really  merits  this  name  in  the  State,  and  crosses  the  southern  por- 
tion of  it  for  near  35  leagues.  The  river  Laja  and  the  river  Turbio 
are  of  less  consequence  ;  and  all  the  other  streams,  though  gen- 
erally known  among  the  people  of  these  districts  by  the  dignified 
title  of  rivers,  scarcely  merit  a  higher  position  among  the  fluvial 
characteristics  of  the  State  than  brooks  or  mountain  torrents,  u'hich 
only  obtainreal  consideration  when  they  are  swollen  by  heavy  rains. 

The  lake  of  Yurirapundaro,  is  the  only  one  which  belongs  to  this 
State;  —  it  is  four  leagues  long  by  one  and  a  half  in  width,  and 
embosoms  several  islands.  Its  sweet  waters  are  filled  with  small 
fish,  which  are  taken  daily  by  the  Indians,  for  the  markets  of  the 
neighborhood  and  the  capital,  but  its  actual  depth  is  unknown. 

The  climate  of  Guanajuato  is  genial,  its  sky  nearly  always  clear, 
and  its  atmosphere  pure.  Owing  to  its  site,  immediately  north  of 
the  torrid  zone,  the  inhabitants  do  not  suffer  the  extremes  of  heat  or 
cold.  Elevated  about  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  its 
rarefied  atmosphere  counteracts  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  so  that 
its  mean  temperature  is  21°  of  the  centigrade  thermometer,  whilst  it 
never  exceeds  28°  in  the  months  betw^een  April  and  June,  which 
are  generally  reckoned  the  warmest  in  this  part  of  the  Republic. 
During  this  season  the  rain  usually  begins  to  fall,  and  lowers  the 
temperature  agreeably.  The  north  wind  prevails  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year;  yet  near  the  period  of  the  annual  rains  it  changes 
for  a  while  to  the  south,  bringing  with  it  an  abundance  of  moist 
vapor  to  fertilize  the  soil.  Nothing  is  sadder  for  the  people  of 
Guanajuato  and  the  adjacent  States  than  to  find,  as  sometimes  hap- 
pens, the  months  passing  without  this  customary  change  of  wind. 
In  such  years  the  crops  fail ;  the  prices  of  grain  consequently  rise, 
and  the  poor  classes  suffer  extremely.  The  year  1786,  is  known  in 
the  annals  of  this  region,  as  one  well  remembered  still  for  the  famine 
that  prevailed  in  consequence  of  a  severe  frost  that  occurred  on  the 
28th  of  the  preceding  August,  blighting  the  prospects  of  the  farmer, 
and  carrying  off  8,000  victims  in  the  capital  and  the  adjacent  mines 
alone.  In  the  month  of  May  agriculture  often  suffers  from  violent 
hail  storms  that  prostrate  the  young  grain  wdiich  at  this  season  of 
the  year  is  usually  extremely  dry  in  consequence  of  the  early  heats 
and  the  V\'ant  of  irrigation. 

The  mild  and  pure  climate  of  Guanajuato  renders  it  a  healthy 
residence.  In  its  southern  part,  about  Salvatierra  and  Yurirapiin- 
daro,  intermittent  fevers,  called  losfrios,  or  agues,  occasionally  pre- 
vail. Dropsy,  rheumatism,  common  fever,  and  dysenteries,  which 
usually  sweep  off  large  numbers  of  Mexicans,  are  milder  and  more 


MALADIKS PRODUCTIONS VINE OLIVE.  311 

easily  treated  in  this  region  than  in  other  portions  of  the  Republic. 
The  laborers  in  the  mines  formerly  suffered  from  diseases  of  the 
chest,  arising  probably  from  the  mephitic  vapors  which  were  con- 
fined in  the  badly  ventilated  galleries  ;  but  the  Deputacion  de  la 
Mineria  took  this  subject  into  consideration,  and  have  forced  the 
owners  of  mines  by  stringent  laws  to  construct  shafts  and  openings 
by  which  these  buried  V\'orkmen  may  receive  continual  supplies  of 
fresh  air. 

Maize,  wheat,  frijoles,  beans,  and  the  common  cereal  grains  are 
produced  abundantly  in  the  fertile  plains  of  the  Bajio  and  San 
Felipe.  Corn,  though  the  chief  product  for  consumption,  not  only 
for  man  but  for  beasts,  is  often  so  abundant,  that  the  farmers  are 
obliged  to  export  it  to  other  States.  The  quality  of  the  wheat  of 
this  State  is  so  excellent,  that  when  it  will  bear  the  cost  of  transpor- 
tation, it  is  sent  to  the  national  capital,  where  it  commands  a  better 
price  than  even  the  grain  raised  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
city.  The  Jz-ijolj  —  a  fine  dark,  nutritious  bean,  which  is  commonly 
used  throughout  Mexico,  by  all  classes,  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  —  grows  abundantly  in  Guanajuato.  The  Chile  pepper  is 
used  in  Mexico,  not  only  as  a  seasoning  for  food  as  in  other  coun- 
tries, but  as  an  aliment  of  life,  which  is  placed  on  tables  of  all  ranks 
at  dinner.  It  is  consumed  both  in  its  green  and  dry  states,  and  in 
the  latter,  it  is  exported  from  Guanajuato  to  the  capital,  w^here  the  pro- 
duct of  the  haciendas  or  plantations  at  Apaseo  are  preferred  by  the 
epicures  as  being  of  the  best  flavor  in  the  Republic.  The  vine,  is 
also  cultivated  in  various  parts  of  this  State,  especially  at  Dolores 
Hidalgo,  Celaya,  and  Chamacuero,  but  as  manufactories  of  wine 
have  not  been  established,  its  culture  does  not  extend  beyond  the 
quantity  of  grapes  required  for  consumption  in  the  markets.  The 
potato  does  not  flourish  in  this  State. 

It  is  believed  that  the  olive  may  be  advantageously  reared  in 
Guanajuato.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  Joaquin 
Gutierrez  de  los  Rios  made  the  experiment  at  his  hacienda  de  Sara- 
bia,  within  the  district  of  Salamanca.  The  scarcity  and  dearness 
of  oil  in  Spain,  at  that  period,  in  consequence  of  the  war,  enabled 
the  mill  established  by  this  person  to  supply  the  neighborhood  with 
the  article  at  such  prices,  that  tlie  lucky  proprietor  realized  a  large 
income  from  his  enterprize.  But  during  the  insurrection  in  1810, 
his  property  was  destroyed,  and  with  it,  a  large  part  of  his  olive 
plantation.  At  present,  considerable  plantations  are  making  at  sev- 
eral haciendas,  especially  at  that  of  Mendoza,  where  30,000  olive 
trees  had  been  already  planted  in  1849. 
2n 


312  DIVISIONS POPULATION CITY   OF  GUANAJUATO. 

The  State  of  Guanajuato  is  divided  into  four  departments  or  pre- 
fectures :  —  1st.  San  Miguel  de  AUende ;  2d.  Leon ;  3d.  Guana- 
juato; 4th  Celaya;  whose  capitals  or  chief  towns  bear  the  same 
names.  The  possession  by  this  State  of  the  great  and  celebrated 
Veta  Madre  which  passes  nearly  through  its  centre,  and  of  the  wide 
and  prolific  plains  of  the  Bajio  and  of  San  Felipe  renders  it  equally 
valuable  as  a  mining  and  agricultural  region,  and  divides  it  fairly 
between  the  two  branches  of  industry.  Its  population  may  be  esti- 
mated at  about  560,000;  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  which  comprises 
the  whites,  thirty-six  per  cent,  the  mixed  races,  and  thirty-nine  per 
cent,  the  Indian.  Guanajuato  contains  three  cities,  four  market- 
towns,  thirty-seven  villages,  and  four  hundred  and  fifty  estates,  plan- 
tations and  farms. 

The  capital  of  the  State  is  the  city  of  Guanajuato,  or  Santa  F6 
de  Guanajuato,  situated  in  21°  0'  15"  north  latitude  and  103°  15' 
west  longitude  from  Paris,  about  6,869  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  according  to  the  measurement  of  Burkhart,  and  containing  be- 
tween 35,000  and  40,000  inhabitants.  The  town  is  perhaps  the 
most  curiously  picturesque  and  remarkable  in  the  republic.  "  En- 
tering a  rocky  Canada,"  says  a  recent  traveller,  "the  bottom  of 
which  barely  affords  room  for  a  road,  you  pass  between  high  adobe 
walls,  above  which,  up  the  steep,  rise  tier  above  tier  of  blank,  win- 
dowless,  sun-dried  houses,  looking  as  if  they  had  grown  out  of  the 
earth.  You  would  take  them  to  be  a  sort  of  cubic  crystallization 
of  the  soil.  Every  corner  of  the  windings  of  the  road  is  filled  with 
buildings  of  mining  companies —  huge  fortresses  of  stone,  ramparted 
as  if  for  defence.  The  scene  varies  with  every  moment; — now 
you  look  up  to  a  church  with  purple  dome  and  painted  towers ; 
now  the  blank  adobe  walls,  with  here  and  there  a  spiry  cypress  or 
graceful  palm  between  them,  rise  far  above  you,  along  the  steep 
ledges  of  the  mountain ;  and  again  the  mountain  itself,  with  its 
waste  of  rock  and  cactus,  is  all  you  see.  The  Cafiada,  finally 
seems  to  close.  A  precipice  of  rock,  out  of  a  rift  in  which  the  stream 
flows,  shuts  the  passage.  Ascending  this  by  a  twist  in  the  road 
you  are  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  Lying  partly  in  the  narrow  bed 
of  the  ravine  and  partly  on  its  sides  and  in  its  lateral  branches,  it  is 
only  by  mounting  to  some  higher  eminence  that  one  can  realize  its 
extent  and  position.  At  the  further  end  of  the  city  the  mountains 
form  a  cul  de  sac.  The  Caiiada  is  a  blind  passage  which  can  only 
be  left  by  the  road  you  came.  The  streets  are  narrow,  crooked, 
and  run  up  and  down  in  all  directions,  and  there  is  no  room  for 
plazas  or  alamedas.     A  little  triangular  space  in  front  of  the  cathe- 


TOWNS  IN  THE  STATE HACIENDA  OF  JARAL.       313 

dral,  however,  aspires  to  the  former  title."  Such  is  the  aspect  of  a 
city  which  is  the  focus  of  a  mineral  region  surrounded  by  more  than 
one  hundred  mines,  which  are  wrought  by  seventy-five  thousand 
laborers. 

In  spite  of  all  the  natural  difficulties  and  impediments  for  fine 
architecture,  Guanajuato  contains  some  fine  edifices,  especially 
among  the  private  residences  of  the  wealthy  miners,  such  as  the 
families  of  Otero,  Valenciana,  Rhul  and  Perez  Galvez.  The  church 
of  the  Jesuits  was  built  by  the  Marquis  Rayas.  Besides  the  cathe- 
dral, the  town  contains  two  chapels,  three  monasteries,  five  con- 
vents, a  college,  a  Bethlehemite  hospital,  a  theatre,  a  barrack,  a 
mint,  an  university,  and  a  gj^mnasium. 

The  Villa  de  Leon,  is  a  market  town  west  north-west  from 
Guanajuato,  in  21°  6'  38"  nortli  latitude,  and  103°  39'  west  longi- 
tude, 6,004  feet  above  the  sea,  in  the  productive  plain  of  Leon. 

San  Felipe  is  another  market  town,  32  leagues  north  of  Guana- 
juato, on  the  road  to  San  Luis  Potosi,  6,906  feet  above  the  sea. 
Ten  leagues  north-east  from  San  Felipe  is  the  valuable  estate  of 
Jaral,  the  property  of  the  Marquis  del  Jaral,  the  wealthiest  and 
largest  land  owner  in  Mexico.  His  stock  of  cattle,  comprising 
horses,  mules,  horned-cattle,  sheep  and  goats  amounts  to  nearly  three 
million  head  !*  Thirty  thousand  sheep  alone,  and  as  many  goats, 
are  annually  slaughtered  on  this  estate  for  the  markets  of  Guana- 
juato and  Mexico,  where  the  sheep  sell  for  from  two  and  a  half  to 
three  dollars  a  piece,  and  the  goats  from  seventy-five  cents  to  one 
dollar  each ! 

Celaya  is  a  city,  and  next  in  importance  to  Guanajuato  in  the 
State.  It  lies  in  20°  38'  north  latitude,  and  102°  52'  west  lonm- 
tude,  near  the  boundary  of  Queretaro,  6,020  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
contains  about  15,000  inhabitants. 

Salamanca  is  a  market  town  in  the  Bajio,  nine  leagues  west  from 
Celaya,  and  is  the  chief  place  of  a  region  possessing  twenty-nine 
haciendas,  or  plantation  estates,  and  sixty-nine  valuable  farms.  Its 
population  is  estimated  at  15,000.  Irapuato,  lies  about  six  leagues 
north-west  from  Salamanca,  and  contains  perhaps  an  equal  number 
of  inhabitants. 

San  Miguel  Allende,  formerly  San  Miguel  el  Grande,  is  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  that  name,  lies  directly  north  of  Celaya,  on 
the  river  de  la  Laja,  where  it  cuts  the  division  between  the  two  de- 
partments. Dolores  Hidalgo  is  on  the  same  stream,  north-west  of 
the  last  town,  and  is  remarkable  in  the  annals  of  the  country  as  the 

1  Muhlenpfordt. 


314  MINES SILVER,   COPPER,   LEAD,   ETC. ZACATECAS. 

residence  of  the  priest  Hidalgo,  under  whose  auspices  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  against  Spain  originated. 

The  mineral  products  of  this  State  have  been  and  still  continue 
very  valuable.  The  chief  silver  mines  are  those  of  Guanajuato, 
Villalpando,  Monte  de  San  Nicolas,  Santa  Rosa,  Santa  Anna,  S. 
Antonio  de  las  Minas,  Comanja,  El  Capulin,  Comangilla,  San  Luis 
de  la  Paz,  San  Rafael  de  los  Lobes,  El  Duranzo,  San  Juan  de  la 
Chica,  Rincon  de  Zenteno,  San  Pedro  de  los  Pozos,  El  Palmar  de 
la  Viga,  San  Miguel  y  San  Felipe.  All  these  mines  and  mineral 
districts  recognize  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Deputacion  de  Mineria 
de  Guanajuato,  although  some  of  them  lie  out  of  the  immediate 
boundaries  of  the  State. 

Besides  the  silver  yielded  at  these  places,  copper  and  iron  are 
produced  by  some  of  them ;  and  at  El  Gigante  cinnabar  has  been 
discovered  disseminated  among  other  substances.  Lead  is  taken 
abundantly  from  the  mine  of  La  Targea;  but  the  mining  operations 
of  the  State  are  chiefly  confined  to  silver. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  State  large  quantities  of  soda  are  found 
near  Celaya,  Salamanca  and  Valle  de  Santiago  ;  and  in  the  north, 
in  the  vicinity  of  San  Felip6,  the  earth  is  impregnated,  in  many 
places,  with  nitrate  of  potash  or  nitre.  Mineral  waters  and  ther- 
mal springs  exist  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Cerro  del  Cubilete, 
near  Silao,  and  are  used  by  invalids  ;  while  in  the  jurisdictions  of 
Leon,  near  L'apuato  or  San  Miguel  Allende  and  Celaya,  other  warm 
and  sulphur  springs  are  found  which  are  beneficially  frequented  by 
persons  who  suffer  from  rheumatism  and  cutaneous  diseases. 


THE    STATE    OF    ZACATECAS. 

This  rich  metallic  region  and  State  lies  between  the  21st  and  25th 
degrees  of  north  latitude  and  102^^  and  lOSl^we'st  Jongitude  from 
Paris.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Durango.and  Nuevo  Leon 
on  the  east  by  San  Luis  Potosi ;  on  the  south-east  by  Guanajuato ; 
and  on  the  west  and  south-west  by  Jalisco.  Its  greatest  breadth, 
from  Sombreret6  to  Real  del  Ramos,  in  the  State  of  San  Luis,  is 
fifty-seven  leagues,  and  its  extreme  length  is  90.  The  superficial 
area  of  the  State  is  reckoned  at  2,355  square  leagues. 

Zacatecas  is  a  mountain  country  of  the  high  pleateau  of  Mexico, 
cut  up  by  spurs  of  the  Cordillera  and  inhospitably  arid.  The  re- 
gion between  Catorce  in  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  Sombrerete  and 
Mazapil  in  Zacatecas  is  a  broad  plain,  interspersed  by  a  few  swell- 


liiiiiiil 


BOUNDARIES AGRICULTURE DIVISIONS POPULATION.       315 

ing  knolls,  and  an  occasional  group  of  hills  or  small  mountains. 
The  agricultural  productions  are  of  course  suitable  to  such  a  geo- 
logical structure ;  but  in  the  Haciendas  de  Ganado,  or  cattle  farms, 
immense  herds  are  constantly  raised  by  the  thrifty  vaqueros  of  this 
region.  As  the  country  is  unusually  dry,  water  tanks,  algibes,  and 
norias  are  established  on  all  the  estates,  and  are  watched  with  the 
greatest  care.  There  is  no  river  of  any  note  whatever  in  Zacatecas. 
The  Arroyo  de  Zacatecas,  the  Rio  Xeres,  the  Rio  Perfido,  del  Ma- 
guey, and  Bafiuelos,  are  but  slender  streams. 

Zacatecas  is  divided  into  eleven  partidos  or  districts.  1st.  Za- 
catecas, 2d  Aguas  Calientes,  3d  Sorabrerete,  4th  TIaltenango,  5th 
Villa  Nueva,  6th  Fresnillo,  7th  Xeres,  8th  Mazapil,  9th  Pinos, 
10th  Nieves,  and  11th  Juchipila ;  possessing  in  all  3  cities,  5  market 
towns,  34  villages  and  mining  works,  139  agricultural  and  cattle 
farms,  562  smaller  similar  establishments,  683  ranchos,  11  convents 
for  monks,  4  for  nuns,  and  four  hospitals.  The  population  has  been 
calculated  at  about  350,000  ;  and  it  is  remarkabl©  that,  according  to 
reliable  statistical  data,  14,937  more  individuals  were  born  than  died 
in  this  State  during  the  year  1830. 

g-^^j^^     (  males,     14,709    j^^^^^^  {  males,     7,012    Births,  28,795 
'   ^  females,  14,086  ^  females,  6,846    Deaths,  13,858 


28,795  13,858  Increase,  14,937 

The  most  valuable  agricultural  district  lies  in  the  district  of  Aguas 
Calientes.  The  best  cultivation  begins  at  the  hacienda  of  San  Ja- 
cinto, 12  leagues  from  the  town  of  Zacatecas,  and  in  this  region  it 
is  reckoned  that  the  farmers  annually  .gather  from  their  harvests, 
140,952  fanegas  of  Corn  (of  150  lbs.);  4,719  cargas  (of  300  lbs.) 
of  wheat;  7,293  fanegas  of  frijoles  or  beans,  and  4,291  arr6bas  (of 
25  lbs.  each,)  of  chile. 

The  mainspring  of  the  wealth  of  Zacatecas  is  its  mineral  produc- 
tion. The  vein  of  the  Veta  Negra  of  Sombrerete  has  been  the  most 
productive  in  the  new  or  old  world.  El  Pavellon,  La  Veta  Grande, 
San  Beruabe,  and  the  isolated  hill  of  Proano  at  Fresnillo  constantly 
yielded  in  former  times  the  most  extraordinary  results  for  the  labor 
bestowed  in  working  them.  Their  present  value  may  be  estimated 
Tom  the  chapter  on  Mines  in  the  preceding  book. 

The  chief  cities,  towns  and  villages  of  this  State  are  the  capital, 
Zacatecas,  containing  from  25,000  to  30,000  inhabitants.  It  lies 
in  22°  47'  19"  o\  north  latitude  and  164°  47'  41"  west  longitude,  at 
an  elevation  of  7,976  feet. 


316  TOWNS ZACATECAS AGUAS    CALIENTES,  ETC. 

The  town  itself  is  not  visible  until  the  traveller  approaches  vMthin 
a  mile  and  a  half,  when  it  is  seen  below  following  the  turns  of  a 
deep  barranca  or  ravine,  of  which  the  mountain  of  la  Bvfa,  with  a 
chapel  on  its  crest,  forms  one  side.  The  streets  are  narrow  and 
dirty,  and  swarm  with  uncleanly  children,  whose  appearance,  like 
that  of  their  squalid  parents,  is  by  no  means  prepossessing.  But 
the  distant  view  of  the  city  is  picturesque  from  the  number  of  reli- 
gious edifices  which  rise  above  the  roofs  of  the  other  buildings.  In 
the  vicinity  of  the  plaza  there  are  some  fine  houses,  and  the  market 
place  presents  a  curious  and  busy  provincial  scene. 

Aguas  Calientes  is  situated  upon  the  banks  of  a  stream  of  the 
same  name,  in  a  broad  and  rich  valley,  at  the  distance  of  25  leagues 
south  of  Zacat^cas.  The  neighborhood  is  famous  for  its  warm 
thermal  springs  ;  the  chief  of  which,  El  Bafio  de  la  Cantera,  lies  a 
league  south-west  of  the  town.  An:uas  Calientes  contains  several 
thousand  inhabitants  and  is  celebrated  for  its  woollen  manufactories, 
among  which  the  one  belonging  to  the  family  of  Pimentel  employed 
about  350  men  and  women  at  its  looms. 

Fresnillo  is  a  mining  town,  and  capital  of  its  district,  14  leagues 
north-west  from  Zacatecas,  in  the  wide  plain  which  divides  the 
mountains  of  Santa  Cruz  and  Organos  from  the  mountain  ranges 
about  Zacat6cas.  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  isolated  knoll  of  Proano, 
in  which  its  mines  are  situated.  The  neighborhood  of  the  town  is 
pretty,  but  the  region  which  intervenes  between  it  and  Sombreret6 
is  a  waste  and  sterile  moorland. 

Sombrerete  is  a  mining  town,  and  capital  of  its  district,  25 
leagues  north-westward  of  Fresnillo,  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain of  Sombreretillo,  or  "  little  hat,"  whose  name  is  derived  from 
a  singular  formation  of  rock  on  its  summit  which  resembles  that 
article  of  dress.  In  its  vicinity  are  the  once  renowned  and  rich 
mines  of  La  Veta  Negra  and  El  Pavellon. 

Upon  the  table  lands  between  Sombrerete,  Fresnillo,  and  Catorc^, 
in  the  State  of  San  Luis,  are  several  towns  or  villages  deserving  of 
notice,  and  the  hacienda  of  Sierra  Hermosa,  a  cattle  estate,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  the  Republic  for  its  extent  and  pro- 
duction. It  covers  an  area  of  262  sitios  or  square  leagues,  and  sup- 
ports immense  herds  of  horned  cattle,  horses,  mules,  goats  and 
sheep.  The  latter,  alone,  are  estimated  at  200,000  head,  about 
30,000  of  which  are  annually  disposed  of.  The  wool  yielded  by 
these  animals  amounts  to  from  4,000  to  5,000  arrobas  yearly. 

The  other  towns  and  villages  of  note  are  Asientos  de  Ibarra, 
Xeres,  Villanueva,  Mazapil. 


PRODUCT  AND  VALUE  OF  ZACATECAN  MINES.       317 

The  Sierra  de  Pinos,  Chalchiguitec,  Los  Angelos,  Plateros,  and 
other  metallic  deposits  were  formerly  celebrated  for  their  productive 
value ;  but  they  are  now  either  partially  or  entirely  abandoned. 

We  may  deduce  some  interesting  statistical  information  from  the 
labors  of  Berghes  in  regard  to  the  mineral  wealth  of  Zacatecas  and 
the  productiveness  of  its  mines.  According  to  the  tables  of  this 
writer,  published  in  1834,  it  appears  that  from  the  year 

1548  to  ]810  the  mines  of  this  region  produced  $588,041,956 
1810  to  1818  "  "  "  20,060,363 

1818  to  1825  "  «  "  17,912,475 

1825  to  1832  "  "  «  30,028,540 


$656,043,335 
These  rates  gave  an  annual  mean  product,  from 
1548  to  1810  "  "         "  of  $2,244,434 

1810  to  1818  "  "         "  "      2,507,545 

1818  to  1825  «  "         "  "     2,558,925 

1825  to  1832  "  "         "  "     4,003,128 

It  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  our  table  on  page  88  of  this  volume, 
that  the  value  of  the  products  of  Zacatecas  in  the  ten  years  from 
1835  to  1844,  was  $43,384,215 ;  giving  a  mean  annual  rate  of 
$4,338,421,  and  exhibiting  the  important  fact,  in  spite  of  revolu- 
tionary troubles  and  consequent  social,  commercial  and  industrial 
disorganization,  that  the  mineral  yield  of  this  region,  instead  of 
diminishing,  has  steadily  increased  with  every  year.  In  1845,  the 
Mint  in  Zacateeas  issued  ;^4,429,353. 

The  State  of  Zacatecas  contains  some  remarkable  remains  of  In- 
dian architecture  on  the  Cerro  de  los^  Edificios,  situated  two 
leagues  northerly  from  the  village  of  Villanueva,  twelve  leagues 
south-west  from  Zacatecas,  and  about  one  league  north  of  La  Que- 
mada,  at  an  elevation  of  7,406  feet  above  the  sea. 

RUINS    NEAR    aUEMADA. 

"  We  set  out,"  says  Captain  Lyon,  in  a  volume  of  his  travels  in 
Mexico,  "on  our  expedition  to  the  Cerro  de  los  Edificios  under  the 
guidance  of  an  old  ranchero,  and  soon  arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  ab- 
rupt and  steep  rock  on  which  the  buildings  are  situated.  Here  we 
perceived  two  ruined  heaps  of  stones,  flanking  the  entrance  to  the 
causeway,  ninety-three  feet  broad,  commencing  at  four  hundred  feet 
from  the  cliff. 

"  A  space  of  about  six  acres  had  been  enclosed  by  a  broad  wall, 
2o 


318  REMAINS    OF    ANTIQUITY    IN    ZACATECAS. 

the  foundations  of  which  are  still  visible,  running  first  to  the  south 
and  afterwards  to  the  east.  Off  its  south-western  angle  stands  a 
high  mass  of  stones  which  flanks  the  causeway.  In  outward  ap- 
pearance it  is  of  a  pyramidal  form,  owning  to  the  quantities  of  stones 
piled  against  it  either  by  design  or  by  its  own  ruin  ;  but  on  close 
examination  its  figure  could  be  traced  by  the  remains  of  solid  walls 
to  have  been  a  square  of  thirty-one  feet  by  the  same  height:  the  heap 
immediately  opposite  is  lower  and  more  scattered,  but,  in  all  pro- 
bability, formerly  resembled  it.  Hence  the  grand  causeway  runs 
to  the  north-east  till  it  reaches  the  ascent  of  the  cliff,  which,  as  I 
have  already  observed,  is  about  four  hundred  yards  distant.  Here 
again  are  found  two  masses  of  ruins,  in  which  may  be  traced  the 
same  construction  as  that  before  described;  and  it  is  not  improba- 
ble that  these  two  towers  guarded  the  entrance  to  the  citadel.  In 
the  centre  of  the  causeway,  which  is  raised  about  a  foot  and  has  its 
rough  pavement  uninjured,  is  a  large  heap  of  stones,  as  if  the  re- 
mains of  some  altar,  round  which  we  can  trace,  notwithstanding  the 
accumulation  of  earth  and  vegetation,  the  paved  border  of  flat  slabs 
arranged  in  the  figure  of  a  six  rayed  star. 

"We  did  not  enter  the  city  by  the  principal  road,  but  led 
our  horses  with  some  difficulty  up  the  steep  mass  formed  by  the 
ruins  of  a  defensive  wall,  inclosing  a  quadrangle  two  hundred  and 
forty  feet  by  two  hundred,  which  to  the  east,  is  sheltered  by  a  strong 
wall  of  unhewn  stones,  eight  feet  in  thickness  and  eighteen  in  height, 
A  raised  terrace  of  twenty  feet  in  width  passes  round  the  northern 
and  eastern  sides  of  this  space,  and  on  its  south-east  corner  is  yet 
standing  a  round  pillar  of  rough  stones,  of  the  same  height  as  the 
wall,  and  nineteen  feet  in  circumference. 

"  There  appear  to  have  been  five  other  pillars  on  the  east,  and 
four  on  the  northern  terrace ;  and  as  the  vein  of  the  plain  which  lies 
to  the  south  and  west  is  very  extensive,  I  am  inclined  to  believe 
that  the  square  has  always  been  open  in  these  directions.  Adjoin- 
ing to  this  we  entered  by  the  eastern  side  to  another  quadrangle, 
surrounded  by  perfect  walls  of  the  same  height  and  thickness  as  the 
former  one,  and  measuring  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  feet  by  one 
hundred  and  thirty-seven.  In  this  were  yet  standing  fourteen  very 
well  constructed  pillars,  of  equal  dimensions  with  that  in  the  adjoin- 
ing enclosure,  and  arranged  four  in  length  and  three  in  breadth  of 
the  quadrangle,  from  which,  on  every  side,  they  separated  a  space 
of  twenty-three  feet  in  width,  probably  a  pavement  of  a  portico  of 
which  they  once  supported  the  roof.  In  their  construction,  as  well 
as  that  of  all  the  walls  which  we  saw,"  a  common  clay  having  straw 


RUINS    OF    QUEMADA.  319 

mixed  with  it  has  been  used.  Rich  grass  was  growing  in  the  spa- 
cious court  where  Ajitec  monarchs  may  once  have  feasted ;  and  our 
cattle  were  so  deHghted  with  it  that  we  left  them  to  graze  while  we 
walked  about  three  hundred  yards  to  the  northward,  over  a  very 
wide  parapet,  and  reached  a  perfect,  square,  flat-topped  pyramid  of 
large  unhewn  stones.  It  was  standing  unattached  to  any  other 
buildings,  at  the  foot  of  the  eastern  brow  of  the  mountain  which 
rises  abruptly  behind  it.  On  the  eastern  face  is  a  platform  of 
twenty-eight  feet  in  width,  faced  by  a  parapet  wall  of  fifteen  feet, 
and  from  the  base  of  this  extends  a  second  platform  with  a  para- 
pet like  the  former,  and  one  hundred  and  eighteen  feet  wide. 
These  form  the  outer  defensive  boundary  of  the  mountain,  which 
from  its  figure  has  materially  favored  its  construction.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  this  eastern  face  must  have  been  of  great 
importance.  A  slightly  raised  and  paved  causeway  descends  across 
the  valley,  in  the  direction  of  the  rising  sun,  and  being  continued  on 
the  opposite  side  of  a  stream  which  flows  through  it,  can  be  traced 
up  the  mountains  at  two  miles  distant,  till  it  terminates  at  the  base 
of  an  immense  stone  edifice  which  probably  may  also  have  been  a 
pyramid.  Although  a  stream  (Rio  del  Partido)  runs  meairdering 
through  the  plain  from  the  northward,  about  midway  between  the 
two  elevated  buildings.  I  can  scarcely  imagine  that  the  causeway 
should  have  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  water  to  the 
city,  which  is  far  more  easy  of  access  than  in  many  other  directions 
much  nearer  to  the  river,  but  must  have  been  construted  for  impor- 
tant purposes  between  the  two  places  in  question ;  and  it  is  not  im- 
probable once  formed  the  street  between  the  frail  huts  of  the  poorer 
inhabitants.  The  base  of  the  large  pyramid  measured  fifty  feet,  and 
I  ascertained  by  ascending  with  a  line  that  its  height  was  precisely 
the  same.  Its  flat  top  was  covered  with  earth  and  a  little  vegeta- 
tion :  and  our  guide  asserted,  although  he  knew  not  where  he  ob- 
tained the  information,  that  it  was  once  surmounted  by  a  statue. 
Off  the  south-east  corner  of  this  building,  and  about  fifteen  yards 
distant,  is  to  be  seen  the  edge  of  a  circle  of  stones  about  eio-ht  feet 
in  diameter,  enclosing  as  far  as  we  could  judge  by  scraping  away 
the  soil,  a  bowl-shaped  pit,  in  which  the  action  of  fire  was  plainly 
observable;  and  the  earth  from  which  we  picked  some  pieces  of  pot- 
tery, was  evidently  darkened  by  an  admixture  of  soot  and  ashes. 
At  the  distance  of  one  hundred  yards  south-west  of  the  large  pyra- 
mid is  a  small  one,  twelve  feet  square,  and  much  injured.  This  is 
situated  on  somewhat  higher  ground,  in  the  steep  part  of  the  ascent 
to  the  mountnin's  hrow.     On   its  eastern  face,  which  is  towards  the 


320  RUINS    OF    QUKMADA. 

declivity,  the  height  is  eighteen  feet ;  and  apparently  there  have  been 
steps  by  which  to  ascend  to  a  quadrangular  space,  having  a  broad 
terrace  around  it,  and  extending  east  one  hundred  iV-ft  by  a  width 
of  fifty.  In  the  centre  of  this  enclosure  is  another  bowl-shaped  pit, 
somewhat  wider  than  the  first.  Hence  we  began  our  ascent  to  the 
upper  works,  over  a  well  buttressed  yet  ruined  wall  built  of  the 
rock.  Its  height  on  the  steepest  side  is  twenty-one  feet,  and  the 
width  on  the  summit,  which  is  level,  with  an  extensive  platform,  is 
the  same.  This  is  a  double  wall  of  ten  feet,  having  been  first  con- 
structed and  then  covered  with  a  very  smooth  kind  of  cement,  after 
which  the  second  has  been  built  against  it.  The  platform,  (which 
faces  to  the  south,  and  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  considered  as  a 
ledge  from  the  cliff,)  is  eighty-nine  feet  by  seventy-two  ;  and  on  its 
northern  centre  stand  the  ruins  of  a  square  building,  having  within 
it  an  open  space  of  ten  feet  by  eight,  and  of  the  same  depth.  In 
the  middle  of  the  quadrangle  is  to  be  seen  a  mound  of  stones  eight 
feet  high.  A  little  farther  on  we  entered  by  a  broad  opening  be- 
tween the  perfect  and  massive  walls,  to  a  square  of  one  hunilred  and 
fifty  feet.  This  space  was  surrounded  on  the  south-east  and  west 
by  an  elevated  terrace  of  three  leet  by  twelve  in  breadth,  having  in 
the  centre  of  each  side  steps  by  which  to  descend  to  the  square. 
Each  terrace  was  backed  by  a  wall  of  twenty-eight  feet  by  eight  or 
nine.  From  the  south  are  two  broad  entrances,  and  on  the  east  is 
one  of  thirty  feet,  communicating  with  a  perfect  enclosed  scpiare  of 
one  hundred  feet,  while  on  the  w<-st  is  one  small  opening,  leading  to 
an  artificial  cave  or  dungeon,  of  which  I  shall  presently  speak. 

"  To  the  north,  the  square  is  bounded  by  the  steep  mountain  ; 
and,  in  the  centre  of  that  side,  stands  a  pyramid  of  sewn  ledges  or 
stages,  which  in  many  places  are  quite  perfect.  It  is  flat  topped, 
has  four  sides,  and  measures  at  the  base  thirty-eight  by  thirty-five 
feet,  while  in  height  it  is  nineteen.  Immediately  behind  this,  and 
on  all  that  portion  of  the  hill  that  presents  itself  to  the  square,  are 
numerous  tiers  of  seats  either  broken  in  the  rock  or  built  of  rough 
stones.  In  the  centre  of  the  square,  and  due  south  of  the  pyramid, 
is  a  small  quadrangular  building,  seven  feet  by  five  in  height.  The 
summit  is  imperfect,  but  has  unquestionably  been  an  altar  ;  and  from 
the  whole  character  of  the  space  in  which  it  stands,  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  pyramid,  the  surrounding  terrace,  and  the  seats  or  steps 
on  the  mountain,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  has  been  the 
grand  Hall  of  Sacrifice  or  Assembly,  or  perhaps  both. 

"  Passing  to  the  westward,  we  next  saw  some  narrow  enclosed 
spaces,  apparently  portions  of  an  aqueduct  leading  from  some  tanks 


RUINS    OF    QUEMADA.  321 

on  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  and  then  we  were  shown  to  the 
mouth  of  the  cave,  or  subterraneous  passage,  of  which  so  many  sus- 
picious stories  are  yet  told  and  beUeved.  One  of  the  principal  ob- 
jects of  our  expedition  had  been  to  enter  this  place,  which  none  of 
the  natives  iiad  ever  ventured  to  do,  and  we  came  provided  with 
torches  accordingly :  unfortunately  however,  the  mouth  had  very  re- 
cently fallen  in,  and  we  could  merely  see  that  it  was  a  narrow,  well 
built  entrance,  bearing  in  many  places  the  remains  of  good  smooth 
plastering.  A  large  beam  of  cedar  once  supported  the  roof,  but  its 
removal  by  the  country  people  had  caused  the  dilapidation  which 
we  now  observed.  Mr.  Sindal,  in  knocking  out  some  pieces  of 
regularly  burnt  brick,  soon  brought  a  ruin  upon  his  head,  but  es- 
caped without  injury ;  and  this  accident  caused  a  thick  cloud  of 
yellow  dust  to  fall,  which,  on  issuing  from  the  cave,  assumed  a  bright 
appearance  under  the  full  glare  of  the  sun;  —  an  effect  not  lost  on 
the  natives,  who  became  more  than  ever  persuaded  that  an  immense 
treasure  lay  hidden  in  that  mysterious  place.  The  general  opinion 
of  those  who  remember  the  excavation  is  that  it  is  very  deep ;  and 
from  many  circumstances  there  is  a  probability  of  its  having  been  a 
place  of  confinement  for  victims.  Its  vicinity  to  the  great  hall,  in 
which  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  sanguinary  rites  were  held, 
is  one  argument  in  favor  of  this  supposition ;  but  there  is  another 
equally  forcible;  —  its  immediate  proximity  to  a  cliff  of  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  down  which  the  bodies  of  victims  may  have 
been  precipitated,  as  was  the  custom  at  the  inhuman  sacrifices  of 
the  Aztecs. 1  A  road  or  causeway  to  be  noticed  in  another  place, 
terminates  at  the  foot  of  the  precipice,  exactly  beneath  the  cave  and 
over-hanging  rock,  and  conjecture  can  form  no  other  idea  of  its  in- 
tended utility,  unless  as  being  in  some  manner  connected  with  the 
dungeon. 

"Hence  we  ascend  to  a  variety  of  buildings,  all  constructed  with 
the  same  regard  to  strength,  and  inclosing  spaces  on  far  too  large  a 
scale  for  the  abode  of  common  people.  On  the  extreme  ridge  of  the 
mountain  were  several  tolerably  perfect  tanks. 

"  In  a  subsequent  visit  to  this  extraordinary  place,  I  saw  some 
buildings  which  had  at  first  escaped  my  notice.  These  were  situa- 
ted on  the  summit  of  a  rock  terminating  the  ridge,  and  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  north  north-west  of  the  citadel. 

"  The  first  is  a  building  originally  eighteen  feet  square,  but  having 

'  The  writings  of  Clavigero,  Solis,  Bernal  Dias,  and  others  describe  this  mode  of 
disposing  of  the  bodies  of  those  whose  hearts  had  been  torn  out  and  offered  to  the 
idol. 


322  RUINS    OK    Ql'KMADA. 

the  addition  of  sloping  walls  to  give  it  a  pyramidal  form.  It  is  Hat 
topped,  and  on  the  centre  of  its  southern  lace  there  a})i)ears  to  have 
been  steps  to  ascend  to  its  summit.  The  second  is  a  square  altar, 
its  height  and  base  being  each  about  sixteen  feet.  These  buildings 
are  surrounded  at  no  great  distance  by  a  strong  wall,  and  at  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  to  the  northward,  advantage  is  taken  of  a  precipice  to 
construct  another  wall  of  twelve  feet  in  width  from  its  brink.  On 
a  small  flat  space  between  this  and  the  pyramid  are  the  remains  of 
an  open  square  edifice,  to  the  southward  of  which  are  two  long 
mounds  of  stone,  each  extending  about  thirty  feet ;  and  to  the  north- 
east is  another  ruin,  having  large  steps  up  its  side.  I  should  con- 
ceive the  highest  wall  of  the  citadel  to  be  three  hundred  feet  above 
the  plain,  and  the  base  rock  surmounts  it  by  about  thirty  feet  more. 
"  The  whole  place  in  fact,  from  its  isolated  situation,  the  disposi- 
tion of  its  defensive  walls,  and  the  favorable  figure  of  the  rock  must 
have  been  impregnable  to  Indians;  and  even  European  troops  would 
have  found  great  difficulty  in  ascending  those  works  which  we  have 
ventured  to  name  the  Citadel.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  greater 
mass  of  the  nation  who  once  dwelt  here  must  have  been  established 
on  the  plain  beneath,  since  from  the  summit  of  the  rock  we  could 
distinctly  trace  three  straight  and  very  extensive  causeways  diver- 
ging from  that  over  which  we  first  passed.  The  most  remarkable 
of  these  roads  runs  south-west  for  two  miles,  is  forty-six  feet  in 
width,  and  crossing  the  grand  causeway  is  continued  to  the  foot  of 
the  cliff  immediately  beneath  the  cave  which  I  have  described.  Its 
more  distant  extreme  is  terminated  by  a  high  and  long  artificial 
mound  immediately  beyond  the  river  toward  the  hacienda  of  La 
Quemada.  We  could  trace  the  second  road  south  and  south-west 
to  a  small  rancho  named  Cayotl,  about  four  miles  distant,  and  the 
third  ran  south-west  by  south  still  farther,  ceasing,  as  the  country 
people  informed  us,  at  a  mountain  six  miles  distant.  All  these  roads 
have  been  slightly  raised,  were  paved  with  rough  stones,  still  visible 
in  many  places  above  the  grass,  and  were  perfectly  straight. 

"  From  the  flatness  of  the  fine  plain  over  which  they  extended,  I 
cannot  conceive  them  to  have  been  constructed  as  paths,  since  the 
people  who  walked  barefoot  and  used  no  beasts  of  burden,  must 
naturally  have  preferred  the  smooth  earthen  foot-ways  which  pre- 
sented themselves  on  every  side,  to  these  roughly  paved  roads.  If 
this  be  admitted,  it  is  not  difficult  to  suppose  that  they  were  the 
centres  of  streets  whose  huts  constructed  of  the  same  kind  of  frail 
materials  as  those  of  the  present  day,  must  long  since  have  disap- 
peared.    Many  places  on  the  plain  are  thickly  strewn  with  stones 


RUINS    OF    QUEMADA.  323 

which  may  once  have  formed  materials  for  the  town  ;  and  around 
the  cattle  farms  there  are  extensive  modern  walls  which,  not  impro- 
bably, were  constructed  from  the  nearest  street.  At  all  events, 
whatever  end  these  causeways  answered,  the  citadel  itself  still  re- 
mains, and  by  its  size  and  strength  confirms  the  accounts  given  by 
Cortez,  Bernal  Diaz,  and  others  of  the  conquerors  of  the  magnitude 
and  strength  of  the  Mexican  edifices,  but  which  have  been  doubted 
by  Robertson,  De  Pau,  and  others.  We  observed  also  in  some 
sheltered  places,  the  remains  of  good  plaster,  confirming  the  ac- 
counts above  alluded  to;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  pre- 
sent rough,  yet  magnificent  buildings  were  once  encased  in  wood,  as 
ancient  Mexico,  the  towns  of  Yucatan,  Tabasco,  and  many  other 
places  are  described  to  have  been  in  the  voyage  of  Jnan  De  Ccri- 
jalvis  in  1518,  and  also  in  the  writings  of  Diaz,  Cortez  and 
Clavigero. 

"  The  Cerro  de  Edificios  and  the  mountains  of  the  surrounding 
range,  are  all  of  gray  porphyry,  easily  fractured  into  slabs,  and  this, 
with  comparatively  little  labor,  has  furnished  materials  for  the  edi- 
fices which  crown  its  summit.  We  saw  no  remains  of  obsidian 
among  the  ruins  or  on  the  plain  —  which  is  remarkable,  as  it  is  the 
general  substance  of  which  the  knives  and  arrow-heads  of  the 
Mexicans  were  formed  ;  but  a  few  pieces  of  very  compact  por- 
phyry were  lying  about  and  some  appeared  to  have  been  chipped 
into  a  rude  resemblance  of  arrow-heads. 

"  Not  a  trace  of  the  ancient  name  of  this  interesting  place,  or  that 
of  the  nation  which  inhabited  it,  is  now  to  be  found  among  the 
neighboring  people,  who  merely  distinguished,  the  isolated  rock  and 
buildings  by  one  common  name,  '  Los  Edificios.*  I  had  inquired  of 
the  best  instructed  people  about  these  ruins  ;  but  all  ray  researches 
were  unavailing  until  I  fortunately  met  with  a  note  in  the  Abb6 
Clavigero's  history  of  Mexico  which  appears  to  throw  some  light  on 
the  subject.  'The  situation  of  Chico-moztoc,  where  the  Mexicans 
sojourned  nine  years  is  not  known,  but  it  appears  to  be  that  place, 
twenty  miles  distant  from  Zacatecas,  towards  the  south,  where  there 
are  still  some  remains  of  an  immense  edifice,  which,  according  to  the 
tradition  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  that  district  was  the  work  of 
the  Aztecs  during  their  migration ;  and  It  certainly  cannot  be 
ascribed  to  any  other  people,  the  Zacatecanos-  themselves  being  so 
barbarous  as  neither  to  live  in  houses  nor  to  know  how  to  build, 
them.'  " 


CHAPTER  XI. 


STATE  OF  SAN  LUIS  POTOSI BOUNDARIES LAKES  RIVERS 

CLIMATE  DEPARTMENTS  PRODUCTS  SAN  LUIS  TOWNS 

MINING  REGION. NEW  LEON BOUNDARIES CHARACTER 

RIVERS CLIMATE DEPARTMENTS AGRICULTURE  GRA- 
ZING, ETC. MONTEREY. COAHUILA BOUNDARY POSITION 

CLIMATE PRODUCTIONS TOWNS.  STATE  OF  DURANGO 

BOUNDARY  CHARACTER  DIVISIONS STREAMS  PRODUC- 
TIONS  CITY  OF  DURANGO TOWNS MINES IRON  SILVER 

INDIAN  NECROLOGY CAVE  BURIAL. 


STATE  OF  SAN  LUIS  POTOSI 


CITY    OF    SAN     LUIS     POTOSI. 


The  State  of  San  Luis  Potosi  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  State 
of  Tamaulipas  ;  on  the  north  by  Nuevo  Leon  ;  on  the  west  by  Zaca- 
tecas ;  on  the  south  by  Guanajuato  and  Queretaro,  and  on  the  south- 
east by  Vera  Cruz.  The  western  portion  of  the  State  is  (juite 
mountainous:;   but  towards  Tamauhpas,  the  Cordillera  is  somewhat 


CLIMATE DEPARTMENTS PRODUCTS SAN  LUIS.    325 

broken,  and  a  lower  hilly  country  stretches  out  towards  the  south- 
east. The  Panuco  and  the  Santander  are  the  only  two  rivers,  and 
the  lagunes  of  Chariel  and  Chila  the  only  two  lakes  of  importance 
in  the  State. 

The  climate  of  the  mountain  region  and  table  lands  is  cold,  w'hile 
that  of  the  lower  elevations  and  flats  towards  the  eastern  boundary 
is  much  warmer,  and,  at  certain  seasons,  very  unhealthy. 

The  State  of  San  Luis  Potosi  is  divided  into  four  departments, 
ten  cantons,  and  fifty-two  municipalities,  with  a  population  of  over 
300,000. 

1st.  Department  of  San  Luis  with  the  cantons  San  Luis,  Santa 
Maria  del  Rio  and  Guadalcazar. 

2d.  Department  of  Rio  Verde,  with  the  cantons  of  Rio  Verde 
and  del  Maiz. 

3d.  Department  of  Tancanhuitz,  with  the  cantons  of  Tancan- 
huitz  and  De  Valles. 

4th.  Department  of  Venado,  with  the  cantons  of  Venado,  Ca- 
torce  and  Ojocaliente. 

The  agriculturists  of  San  Luis  are  engaged  chiefly  in  the  produc- 
tion of  corn,  wheat,  barley  and  fodder ;  all  of  which  are  yielded 
plentifully  by  the  genial  soil  of  the  State.  But  the  toils  of  the  far- 
mer and  the  generosity  of  the  ground  are  not  always  repaid  by  suit- 
able prices  or  a  good  market.  Corn  ranges  from  fifty  cents  to 
seventy-five  the  fanega ;  and  even  at  this  rate  often  lacks  purcha- 
sers. Cattle  are  raised  in  large  quantities,  as  in  Zacatecas,  Durango 
and  Chihuahua.  Manufactures  are  progessive.  Woollen  and  cot- 
ton fabrics  are  produced  of  excellent  quality  and  favor  among  the 
masses.  Glass,  leather,  pottery  and  metallic  wares  are  also  made  in 
iarge  quantities,  and  a  busy  traffic  in  foreign  goods  is  c.irried  on 
with  the  port  of  Tampico,  and  the  States  of  Zacatecas,  Durango, 
Sonora,  New  Leon,  Guanajuato,  Mechoacan  and  Jalisco.  The  ])o- 
sition  of  this  State,  and  especially  of  its  principal  town,  naturally 
makes  it  an  entrepot  between  the  coast  and  the  interior,  for  imjiorts 
from  America  and  Europe.  Nevertheless,  a  small  trade,  only,  ex- 
ists in  home  products,  and  these  are  chiefly  sent  to  New-  Leon  and 
Coahuila. 

The  chief  towns  are  San  Luis  Potosi,  the  capital  of  the  State 
and  seat  of  government,  lying  on  a  level  plain,  among  the  steep 
declivities  of  the  Cordillera  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sources  of 
the  Panuco,  in  22°  4'  58"  north  latitude,  103°  7'  west  longitude 
from  Paris,  5,959  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  a  regular,  well  built 
city,  with  broad,  paved  streets,  a  fine  plaza  or  public  square,  and 
2p 


326  TOWNS MINING    REGION. 

six  handsome  churches,  three  convents,  and  one  hospital.  Its 
population  may  be  estimated  at  35,000. 

GuADALCAZAR,  is  the  capital  of  the  partido  or  district  of  that 
name,  18  leagues  north-west  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  in  22°  31'  25'' 
north  latitude  and  102°  59'  30"  west  longitude  from  Paris,  5,132 
feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  valley  south  of  a  mountain  group  which  was 
once  extremely  productive  in  mineral  riches. 

Rio  Verde  is  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Rio  Verde,  34 
leagues  east  of  San  Luis.  The  town  of  Valles,  with  3,500  in- 
habitants, lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Montezuma,  in  the  tierra 
caliente,  on  the  boundary  of  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz.  Its  neighbor- 
hood is  rich  in  sugar  plantations  and  in  tropical  productions  gen- 
erally. 

Venado,  29  leagues  north  of  San  Luis,  is  the  chief  town  of  its 
Department ;  it  lies  on  the  road  from  the  capital  of  the  State  to 
Catorce,  and  contains  about  8,000  inhabitants. 

In  the  partido  Ojocaliente  lies  the  town  of  that  name,  28 
leagues  north-west  of  the  city  of  San  Luis,  and  10  leagues  south- 
east of  the  capital  of  Zacatecas,  6,714  feet  above  the  sea> 

Catorce  is  a  mining  town,  likewise  in  the  department  of  Venado, 
and  is  sometimes  known  by  the  sounding  title  of  "  Real  de   la 

PURISIMA    CONCEPCION     DE     AlAMOS     DE     LOS     CaTORC^."       The 

name  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  slaughter  of  fourteen  Span- 
ish soldiers  who  are  said  to  have  been  killed  in  its  vicinity  by  a 
tribe  of  savages  inhabiting  these  wild  mountain  regions  before  the 
discovery  of  the  adjacent  mines. 

Nothing  can  be  more  dreary,  bleak  and  desolate  than  the  aspect 
of  the  Cordillera  of  Catorce.  A  few  narrow  mule  paths,  or  die  worn 
bed  of  a  mountain  torrent  alone  break  the  monotonous  coloring:  of 
the  mass ;  and  the  town  placed  at  the  great  height  of  8,788  feet 
above  tlie  sea,  is  completely  hidden  from  below  by  the  bold  brow  of 
the  mountain.^  There  is  neither  a  tree  nor  a  blade  of  grass  on  the 
steep  and  sterile  flanks  of  these  rocky  elevations,  though  seventy 
years  ago  the  whole  district  was  covered  with  wood  which  might 
have  endured  for  centuries  had  not  the  improvident  and  w-asteful 
spirit  of  the  first  adventurers  wantonly  destroyed  these  valuable  re- 
sources. Forests  were  burnt  to  clear  the  ground,  and  the  larger 
timber  which  was  required  for  the  mines  when  they  were  wrought 
again  after  the  revolution,  w^as  brought  from  a  distance  of  twenty- 
two  leagues. 

'  Ward  assigns  Catorce  an  elevation  of  over  7,760  feet.  The  statement  given  in 
the  present  work  is  on  the  more  recent  authority  of  Muhlenpfordt. 


NEW   LEON BOUNDARIES,   CHARACTER,   RIVERS,   CLIMATE.       327 

On  reaching  a  high  ridge  above  the  adjacent  valley,  the  town  of 
Catorce  is  immediately  perceived  at  the  feet  of  the  traveller,  lying  in 
a  hollow  beyond  which  the  mountain  steeps  again  rise  precipitously 
above  a  thousand  feet,  —  the  course  of  the  Veta  Madre,  or  great 
*'  mother  vein,"  being  distinctly  traced  upon  it  by  the  buildings  be- 
longing to  the  mines  and  miners.  The  site  of  the  town  is  extremely 
singular,  as  it  is  intersected  by  deep  ravines,  or  barrancas ,  upon  the 
ledges  of  which  many  of  the  dwellings  are  erected.  Some  of  these 
strange  edifices,  like  those  of  Edinburg,  have  one  story  on  one  side, 
and  two  or  three  on  the  other  ;  and  most  of  them  are  surrounded  by 
massive  fragments  of  rock,  amongst  which  the  laborers  shelter 
themselves  from  inclement  weather. 

In  this  region  the  most  valuable  mines  of  the  State  of  San  Luis 
Potosi  have  been  found  and  wrought. 

Within  a  few  years  past  a  profitable  quicksilver  mine  was  discov- 
ered, south  of  the  capital,  in  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Hacienda  de  Vil- 
lela.  This  mine,  in  the  months  of  August  and  September,  1843, 
produced  1,068  pounds  of  the  metal  eji  caldo. 


THE    STATE    OF    NEW    LEON. 

This  fine  portion  of  the  present  Mexican  Confederacy  was  colo- 
nized at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  by  the  Viceroy  Monterey, 
and  was  then  known  by  the  proud  title  of  El  Nuevo  Reyno  de 
Leon,  or,  the  New  Kingdom  of  Leon.  The  modern  State  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Tamaulipas  ;  on  the  north  by  Coahuila ;  on 
the  west  by  that  State  and  Durango ;  on  the  south-west  and  south 
by  Zacatecas  and  San  Luis  Potosi. 

The  geological  formation  of  this  State  is  generally  mountainous. 
It  lies  among  the  first  spurs  and  ridges  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  south 
of  the  Rio  Bravo,  or  Grande  del  Norte,  and  is  interspersed  with 
wide  plains  and  fruitful  valleys  which  produce  good  crops  under 
careful  cultivation.  The  rivers,  all  of  which  flow  eastwardly  towards 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  are  the  Rio  Tigre,  the  San  Juan,  the  Rio  Blanco 
or  Borbon,  and  the  Sabinas,  which  passes  into  this  State  from  Coa- 
huila, and  falls  into  the  Rio  Bravo  near  Revilla.  There  are  numer- 
ous other  small  streams  and  brooks,  of  no  geographical  but  of  con- 
siderable agricultural  importance.  The  climate  is  generally  warm, 
except  among  the  higher  ranges  of  mountains ;  and,  in  summer, 
it  is  usually  extremely  hot,  though  healthy  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  about  130,000 


328       DEPARTMENTS,  AGIUCULTLRE,   GIIAZIXG,  ETC.,  MONTEREY. 

New  Leon  is  divided  into  five  Partidos  or  Departments,  with  25 
districts. 

1st,  Department  of  Monterey,  with  seven  districts:  Monterey, 
Salinas  Victorias,  Absalo,  San  Nicolas  Hidalgo,  Pesqueria  Grande, 
Santa  Catarina,  and  Guajuco. 

2d,  Department  of  Cadereyta  Ximenes,  with  five  districts  :  Ca- 
dereyta,  Santa  Maria,  Cerralvo,  Agualequas,  and  Santa  Maria  de  las 
Aldamas. 

3d.  Department  of  Monte  Morelos,  with  three  districts :  Monte 
Mordos,  Mota  and  China. 

4th.  Department  of  Linares,  with  five  districts  :  Linares,  Gal6ana, 
Hualahuises,  Rio  Blanco  and  Concepcion. 

5th.  Department  of  Aldama,  with  five  districts :  Villa  Aldama, 
Vallecillo,  Sabinas,  Lampazos  and  Tlascala. 

The  agriculture  of  New  Leon  has  not  been  as  carefully  and  suc- 
cessfully pursued  as  it  might  have  been,  in  the  hands  of  a  different 
population.  The  annual  product  of  the  soil  has  been  stated  by  the 
Mexican  authorities,  to  average  120,600  fanegas  of  corn  ;  5,700 
fanegas  of  frijoles  or  beans,  and  46,500  hundred-weight  of  sugar;  — 
the  home  market  affording  one  dollar  per  fanega  for  corn,  three  dol- 
lars per  fanega  for  frijoles,  and  three  dollars  per  hundred  weight  for 
raw  sugar. 

The  chief  occupation  of  the  landholders  is  the  grazing  of  cattle, 
and  the  yearly  return  of  animals,  shows  that  the  State  is  quite  pro- 
ductive in  this  branch  of  rural  labor.  It  is  calculated  by  official 
reporters  that  New  Leon  annually  feeds  and  sends  to  market:  — 
50,000  horses,  12,000  mules,  75,000  large  horned  cattle,  and  850,- 
000  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs.  The  local  value  of  which  is  six  dollars 
a  head  for  horses,  twelve  for  a  mule,  four  for  neat  cattle,  and  from 
fifty  cents  to  a  dollar,  a  piece,  for  sheep,  goats,  and  swine.  The 
State  is  regarded  as  rich  in  minerals  of  silver  and  lead,  but  the 
mining  operations  are  almost  abandoned,  except  at  Cerralvo  and 
Vallecillo.  Salt  is  made  at  the  salt  mines  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio 
Tigre.  The  domestic  trade  is  carried  on  in  State  productions  with 
Mexico  and  Queretaro,  and  North  American  or  European  fabrics 
are  imported  through  the  port  of  Tampico  de  Tamaulipas. 

The  capital  of  the  State  is  Monterey,  in  25°  59'  north  latitude 
and  102°  33'  west  longitude  from  Paris,  about  220  leagues  north  of 
the  city  of  Mexico,  situated  on  the  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra 
Madre  on  the  margin  of  one  of  the  affluents  of  the  Rio  Tigre.  Its 
population  is  estimated  at  about  13,000,  and  its  climate  is  consid- 
ered agreeable  and  healthy.     INIonterey  is  connected  with  the  his- 


COAHUILA BOUNDARY POSITION CLIMATE.  329 

tory  of  North  American  victories,  by  the  capitulation  it  made  to 
General  Taylor,  September,  1846. 

The  other  principal  towns,  villages  and  settlements  in  New  Leon, 
are  San  Felipe  de  Linares,  containing  6,000  inhabitants,  40 
leagues  south-east  of  Monterey ;  Buena  Vista,  a  village  7  leagues 
north-west  of  Linares ;  Cadereyta  Ximenes,  a  small  town  of  2,000 
people,  10  leagues  south-east  of  Monterey ;  Salinas  Victorias,  10 
leagues  north  of  Monterey  ;  Pesqueria  Grande,  a  village  north-west 
from  Monterey,  and  formerly  the  site  of  silver  mines  and  salt  works  ; 
Villa  Aldama  ;  San  Carlos  de  Vallecillo  ;  Lampazos  ;  Agualequas  ; 
China,  and  Galeana. 


THE    STATE    OF    COAHUILA. 

Coahuila  was  formerly  united  with  the  ancient  Mexican  province 
of  Texas,  until  the  revolution,  which  resulted  in  the  independence 
of  the  latter,  sundered  the  bond  and  added  it  to  the  United  States 
of  North  America.  The  present  State  of  Coahuila  is  bounded  on 
the  east  by  New  Leon  aftd  TfHoaHlipa^ ;  on  the  south  by  Zacatecas; 
on  the  west  by  the  Indian  territory  known  as  the  Bolson  de  Mapi- 
mi,  Durango  and  Chihuahua ;  and  on  the  north  by  Texas. 

The  whole  State  lies  on  the  first  steeps  of  the  Sierra  Madre ;  its 
southern  portion,  beyond  the  Rio  Sabinas,  is  extremely  mountain- 
ous ;  but  from  the  northern  bank  of  this  stream,  the  land  sinks  gra- 
dually into  levels  until  it  is  lost  in  the  well-watered  and  fruitful 
plains  of  Texas.  The  principal  rivers  in  this  State  are  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte  or  Rio  Bravo,  the  Sabinas  and  the  Rio  Tigre ; 
and  the  chief  lakes  orlagunes  are  those  of  Parras  and  Agua  Verde. 

The  climate  of  Coahuila  is  equable  and  healthy.  From  the  mid- 
dle of  May  to  the  middle  of  August  the  greatest  heat  is  generally 
experienced,  and,  during  this  season,  the  country  is  torn  by  high 
winds  which  nearly  every  day  begin  to  blow  at  sunset.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  State  is  estimated  at  about  97,000.  Large  bodies  of 
Indians  inhabit  the  lonelier  regions  of  Coahuila;  and,  in  the  north, 
beyond  the  Rio  Grande,  the  country  swarms  with  ferocious  tribes 
of  Lipans  and  Cumanches.  Agriculture  is  not  flourishing  though 
the  soil  of  large  portions  of  the  State  is  good  and  capable  of  pro- 
duction. The  remote  position  of  Coahuila,  and  the  thinness  of  its 
population,  have  probably  obliged  the  inhabitants  to  congregate  in 
towns  and  villages  where  they  might  afford  each  other  mutual  protec- 


330  PRODUCTIONS TOWNS DURANGO BOUNDARY. 

tion  against  the  frontier  savages ;  and  thus  they  have  been  induced 
to  abandon  agriculture  for  the  wilder  life  of  vaqueros  or  herdsmen. 
Wheat,  corn,  beans  and  vegetables  are  easily  raised  in  the  best  parts 
of  the  State,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Parras  extensive  vineyards  have 
been  planted  which  produce  an  excellent  wine.  Horses,  mules, 
wine  and  corn  form  the  home  commerce  of  the  State;  while  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Santa  Rosa,  and  of  two  or  three  other  villages,  a 
small  number  of  persons  are  engaged  in  the  exploration  of  mines. 

The  principal  town  of  Coahuila  is  Saltillo,  or,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  Leona-  Vicario,  situated  in  the  south  near  the  boundary 
of  Nuevo  Leon,  twenty-five  leagues  westward  of  Monterey,  at  the 
foot  of  a  hill  in  the  midst  of  a  fruitful  region.  Its  geographical  po- 
sition, according  to  Wislizenius,  is  about  25°  25'  of  north  lati- 
tude, and  101°  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  It  is  a  well  built 
town,  whose  straight  streets  radiate  at  right  angles  from  the  public 
square,  in  the  middle  of  which  a  tasteful  fountain  constantly  sup- 
plies the  population  with  excellent  water.  The  population  exceeds 
20,000 ;  and  the  town  is  celebrated  for  the  production  of  woollen 
blankets  and  scrapes  or  ponchos,  which  are  in  demand  all  over  the 
Republic. 

San  Fernando,  or,  La  Villa  de  Rosas,  is  a  town  and  military 
post  in  the  north  of  the  State,  south  of  the  Rio  Grande,  containing 
about  3,000  inhabitants. 

Monclova,  is  a  town  of  3,700  inhabitants  on  the  Coahuila,  an 
affluent  of  the  Rio  Tigre. 

Parras  lies  west  of  Saltillo,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  lake  of  the 
same  name,  and  some  years  ago  w'as  estimated  to  contain  nearly 
17,000  inhabitants,  including  the  adjacent  farmers,  planters  and 
their  laborers.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  grapes  and  wine,  as  we  have 
already  remarked. 

The  other  villages  and  settlements  worthy  of  note  are  Villa  Longla, 
Viesca  y  Bustamante,  Santa  Rosa,  Guerrero,  Cienegas,  Abasoto, 
Nadadores,  S.  Buenaventura,  San  Francisco  y  San  Miguel  Aguayo, 
Capillania  and  Candela. 


THE    STATE    OF    DURANGO. 

Durango  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Chihuahua ;  on  the  west  by 
Sinaloa  ;  on  the  east  by  Coahuila,  and  on  the  south  by  Zacatecas 
and  Jalisco. 


CHARACTER DIVISIONS STREAMS PRODUCTIONS.  331 

This  State  is  penetrated,  from  near  its  centre,  in  a  north-west- 
wardly  direction  by  the  main  artery  of  the  great  Cordillera ;  and 
whilst  the  north-eastern  section  of  Durango  slopes  gradually  down- 
ward towards  the  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande,  its  south-western  part 
lies  high  up  among  the  table  lands  and  mountain  spurs  that  lean 
towards  Sinaloa  and  the  Pacific  coast.  The  climate  of  this  moun- 
tainous State  is  healthy  and  cool,  and  its  agricultural  productions 
are  similar  to  those  of  other  Mexican  States  whose  geological  for- 
mation resembles  it. 

Durango  is  divided  into  twelve  partidos  or  departments  :  —  Du- 
rango, San  Juan  del  Rio,  Nombre  de  Dios,  San  Dimas,  Mesquital 
Papasquiaro,  Oro,  Indee,  Tamasula,  Cuencame,  Mapimi,  and  Na- 
sas  ;  —  comprising  38  municipalities,  4  cities,  5  towns,  54  villages, 
52  mineral  w'orks,  48  parishes.  111  haciendas,  48  estancias,  and 
521  ranchos.     The  population  is  estimated  at  about  300,000. 

The  chief  streams  and  bodies  of  waters  in  the  State  are  the  Rio 
Nasas,  Rio  Guanabas,  Rio  Florida,  and  the  lagunes  of  Cayman  and 
Parras,  the  latter  of  which,  though  lying  in  Coahuila,  bounds  upon 
the  edge  of  Durango. 

The  wealth  of  Durango  exists  in  its  minerals  and  in  its  cattle  es- 
tates. Its  haciendas  de  cria  produce  immense  quantities  of  horses, 
mules,  sheep  and  horned  beasts  which  are  readily  sold  in  the  va- 
rious markets  and  fairs  of  the  republic.  At  the  hacienda  of  La 
Sarca,  a  stock  of  200,000  sheep  and  40,000  mules  and  horses,  is 
constantly  kept  on  hand,  and  at  Ramos,  which  contains  four  hun- 
dred square  leagues  of  land,  80,000  sheep  are  annually  fed  for 
their  fleece,  skins  and  carcasses.  About  150,000  sheep  are  every 
year  sent  from  Durango  to  the  market  of  Mexico  alone. 

In  the  valley  of  Poanas,  fifteen  leagues  east  from  the  capital, 
there  are  fine  corn  lands  ;  and  in  the  deep  valleys  of  the  Sierra  Ma- 
dre  even  sugar  is  raised  wherever  the  exposure  and  the  moisture  of 
the  situation  permits  the  successful  cultivation  of  cane.  Indigo  and 
coffee  grow  wild  in  the  warm  barrancas  on  the  genial  slopes  of  the 
Cordillera ;  but  neither  of  these  articles  is  as  yet  cultivated  by  the 
planters.  Cotton  is  grown  in  the  vicmity  of  the  Rio  Nasas,  and 
the  town  of  Cinco  Senores  is  the  centre  of  a  district  covered  with 
plantations  which  supply  most  of  the  factories  of  San  Luis  Potosi, 
Zacatecas  and  Saltillo.  Mescal,  a  species  of  brandy  is  distilled 
in  large  quantities  from  the  maguey  which  grows  abundantly  in 
Durango. 

The  capital  of  the  State,  seat  of  government,  and  residence 
of  the  bishop,  is  the  city  of  Durango,  sometimes  known   as  /./i 


332  CITY    OF    DURANGO TOWNS MINES. 

Ciudad  de  Victoria^  or,  Giiadiana.  It  lies  under  2A"  25'  north  lati- 
tude and  105°  55'  west  longitude,  at  an  elevation  of  6,847  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  sixty-five  leagues  north- westwardly 
from  Zacatecas.  It  is  in  the  southern  section  of  the  State,  and  was 
originally  founded,  in  1559,  by  the  Viceroy  Velasco,  as  a  military 
post  designed  for  the  control  of  the  Chichimecas.  Its  population 
at  present  may  be  estimated  at  between  thirty  and  forty  thousand. 

This  capital,  and  most  of  the  other  noted  towns  in  Durango,  owe 
their  existence  to  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  neighborhood.  Before 
the  mines  of  Guarisamey  were  discovered  the  city  of  Durango  was 
a  mere  village,  or  pueblo  ranchero,  containing,  as  late  as  1783,  no 
more  than  eight  thousand  inhabitants.  But  the  exploration  of  the 
mines  infused  life,  activity,  and  wealth  into  the  population,  and  the 
State  progressed  rapidly  as  its  resources  were  developed.  The  fine 
streets  of  the  capital,  its  great  plaza  or  square,  its  theatre,  and  all 
its  public  edifices  were  erected  by  Zambrano,  who  is  said  to  have 
extracted  upwards  of  thirty  millions  of  dollars  from  his  mines  at  (iua- 
risamey  and  San  Dimas.  A  mint  has  been  established  in  the  city, 
and,  besides  this,  it  possesses  factories  of  cotton,  glass  and  tobacco. 

The  towns  of  Villa  del  Nombre  de  Dios,  with  7,000  inhabi- 
tants, San  Juan  del  Rio  with  12,000  and  Cinco  Senores  de 
Nasas,  are  almost  the  only  ones  in  the  State  unconnected  with 
mines.  The  two  first  are  supported  chielly  by  the  sale  of  Mescal 
distilled  from  the  maguey  or  aloe ;  and  the  last,  by  the  extensive 
cotton  plantations  wliich  have  been  already  mentioned. 

Besides  these  towns  there  are  the  Villa  Feliz  de  Tamasula, 
north-west  of  Durango  on  the  boundary  of  Sinaloa  ;  Papasquiaro 
with  6,000  inhabitants ;  Guarisamey,  a  mining  town,  in  a  deep  and 
warm  valley,  surrounded  with  steep  mountains  near  9,000  feet  high, 
and  containing  about  4,000  people ;  La  Villa  de  Mapimi,  north  of 
the  Rio  Nasas,  on  the  borders  of  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  and  east 
of  the  Cerro  de  la  Cadena,  with  about  3,000  inhabitants  ;  Cuen- 
came ;  El  Oro ;  and  many  other  villages  and  towns,  too  numerous 
and  too  unimportant  for  separate  notice,  but  which  deserve  recol- 
lection as  indicating  the  tendency  of  this  region  to  aggregate  popu- 
lation. The  State  contained  in  1833,  250,000  inhabitants,  accord- 
ing to  good  authority,  and  it  is  probable  that  at  present  it  does  not 
number  less  than  300,000. 

Durango  is  rich  in  mineral  deposits.  Iron  abounds  within  a 
quarter  of  a  league  of  the  gates  of  the  capital.  The  Cerro  del  Mer- 
cado  is  entirely  composed  of  iron  ores  of  two  distinct  qualities, — 
crystallized  and  magnetic, — but  almost  equally  rich,  as  they  contain 


IRON SILVER INDIAN    NECROLOGY CAVE    BURIAL.       333 

from  sixty  to  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  pure  metal.  Silver  is  also 
abundant  in  the  mountains ;  but  the  mines  have  been  carelessl}/ 
worked,  and,  in  some  places,  are  abandoned  for  want  of  suitable 
machinery  or  enterprize.  The  principal  districts  and  places  in 
v^'hich  this  precious  deposit  has  been  found  and  profitably  wrought, 
are  at  Gavalines,  Guarisamey  and  San  Dimas,  in  the  two  last  ot 
which  the  fortunate  adventurer  Zambrano,  acquired,  during  twenty- 
five  years,  the  extraordinary  wealth  he  possessed.  These  mines  are 
divided  into  Tamasula,  Canelas  and  Sianori,  lying  on  the  western 
slope  of  the  Cordillera  ;  and  Guanasevi,  Indee,  El  Oro,  Cuencame 
and  Mapimi,  on  the  eastern  declivities.  They  lie  about  five  days' 
journey  west  of  the  capital. 

The  following  interesting  sketch  of  Indian  necrology  is  given  in 
the  valuable  and  recent  work  of  JNIiihlenpfordt  upon  the  Mexican 
Republic. 

In  the  State  of  Durango,  —  says  this  interesting  German  author, — 
especially  in  the  unexplored  portion  of  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi, 
many  rehcs  of  antiquity,  important  for  the  history  of  this  country, 
are  probably  hidden.  In  the  summer  of  1838,  a  remarkable  old 
Indian  cave  of  sepulture  was  discovered  in  this  singular  region. 
Among  the  few  establishments  which  enterprizing  settlers  have 
founded  in  that  lonely  territory  which  is  overrun  by  wild  Indians, 
one  of  the  most  important  is  the  estate  of  San  Juan  de  Casta,  on  its 
western  border,  86  leagues  north  of  the  town  of  Durango.  Don 
Juan  Flores,  its  proprietor,  rambling  one  day  with  several  com- 
panions in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Bolson,  remarked  the  entrance  of 
a  cavern  on  the  side  of  a  mountain.  He  went  in,  and  beheld,  as 
he  imagined,  a  great  number  of  Indians  sitting  silently  around  the 
walls  of  the  cave.  Flores  immediately  rushed  forth  in  affright,  to 
communicate  his  remarkable  discovery  to  his  friends,  who  at  once 
supposed  that  the  story  of  the  adventurer  was  nothing  but  an  affair 
of  fancy,  as  they  no  where  found  any  trace  or  foot  path  to  show 
that  the  secluded  spot  had  been  hitherto  visited.  But,  in  order  to 
satisfy  themselves,  they  entered  the  cavern  with  pine  torches, — and 
their  sight  was  greeted  by  more  than  a  thousand  corpses  in  a  state 
of  perfect  preservation,  their  hands  clasped  beneath  their  knees, 
and  sitting  on  the  ground.  They  were  clad  in  mantles  excellently 
woven  and  wrought  of  the  fibres  of  a  bastard  aloe,  indigenous  in 
these  regions,  which  is  called  lechuguilla,  with  bands  and  scarfs  of 
variegated  stuffs.  Their  ornaments  were  strings  of  fruit-kernels, 
with  beads  formed  of  bone,  ear-rings,  and  thin  cylindrical  bones 
polished  and  gilt,  and  their  sandals  were  made  of  a  species  of  liana. 
2a 


CHAPTER     XII. 

STATE     OF     CHIHUAHUA  POSITION BOUNDABIES EXTENT 

CHARACTERISTICS RIVERS LAKES INDIANS DIVISIONS 

CLIMATE PRODUCTIONS  CATTLE     ESTATES MINT MINES 

PRINCIPAL    TOWNS  —  CHIHUAHUA EL  PASO    DEL    NORTE  

MILITARY   IMPORTANCE EL  PASO  WINE,  ETC. ANTIQUITIEiJ 

INDIAN  RAVAGES THE  BOLSON    DE  MAPIMI MEXICAN  MODES 

OF     TRAVELLING     AND     TRANSPORTATION LITERA MULES 

ARRIEROS CONDUCTA COACHES FREIGHT  WAGONS MEXI- 
CAN    HABIT     OF      HOME-STAYING WANT     OF     EXPLORATION 

MODERN    ADVANCEMENT. 


THE    STATE    OF    CHIHUAHUA. 

The  State  of  Chihuahua,  containing  an  area  of  17,1 51 1  square 
leagues,  or  119,169  English  square  miles,  and  reaching  from  26°  53' 
36"  to  32°  57'  43"  north  latitude,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  New 
Mexico,  east  by  Coahuila  and  Texas,  south  by  Durango,  south-west 
by  Sinaloa,  and  north-west  by  Sonora.  The  great  mountain  chain 
of  Mexico,  which  is  the  connecting  link  between  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains of  the  north  and  the  Andes  of  the  south,  is  here  known  as  the 
Sierra  Madre,  and  occupies  chiefly  the  western  part  of  the  State, 
where  its  elevations  attain  a  vast  height,  and  at  length,  descend  ab- 
ruptly, cut  by  deep  barrancas  or  ravines,  until  they  are  lost  in  the 
plains  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa.  Mexican  authorities  state  the  highest 
point  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  at  the  Peaks  of  Jesus  Maria,  to  be  8,441 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  greater  portion  of  Chihuahua 
consequently  lies,  like  Durango,  upon  the  plateau  of  Mexico,  and 
only  a  small  part  upon  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Madre.  The 
loftier  elevations  of  the  Cordillera,  as  it  passes  upward  from  Duran- 
go, lean  towards  the  west  until  they  pass  the  centre  of  Chihuahua, 
and  then  bending  once  more,  nearly  north,  pursue  their  way 
through  New  Mexico  into  the  remote  wilderness  of  our  Union. 
Towards  the  east  these  steeps  become  gradually  depressed  until 
they  are  lost  in  the  vast  and  uncultivated  regions  of  the  Bolson  de 
Mapimi,  w'hose  elevation  above  the  sea  is  still  3,800  feet,  accord- 
ing to  the  measurement  of  Dr.  Wislizenius. 


RIVERS LAKKS INDIANS DIVISIONS.  335 

Seventeen  rivers  and  streams  flow  through  the  territory  of  this 
State.  The  Rio  Bravo,  or  Rio  Grande  del  Norte ;  the  Rio  Con- 
chas ;  Florida  ;  Chihuahua  ;  Tonachi ;  Llanos  ;  Casas  Grandes  ; 
San  Buenaventura  ;  Carmen  ;  Santa  Isabel ;  Pasesiochi ;  Mulatos  ; 
Chinapas ;  Parral ;  San  Pedro ;  Batopilas ;  and  Rio  Grande  de 
Bavispe.  The  lakes  or  lagunes  are  those  of  San  Martin  ;  Guzman  ; 
Patos,  or  Candelaria ;  Encinillas  ;  and  Castilla.  The  river  Nasas, 
which  rises  in  Durango  debouches  in  the  Lake  of  Cayman,  in  the 
Bolson  de  Mapimi.  The  climate  resembles  that  of  the  adjoining 
State  of  Durango.  In  the  year  1834,  the  population,  according  to 
official  statistics  was  145,182;  at  present,  it  is  estimated  at  from 
150,000  to  160,000,  which  number  would  give  about  1.3  for  each 
English  square  mile.  This  is  probably  the  actual  number  of  inhabi- 
tants within  the  State,  exclusive  of  Indians  and  some  wild  dwellers 
among  the  mountains  who  were  not  comprised  in  the  census  of 
1833.  Large  numbers  of  aborigines  occupy  the  lonelier  portions 
of  Chihuahua.  Tribes  of  Tepehuanes,  Llanos,  Acotlames,  Coco- 
yames  and  a  few  remnants  of  the  Aztecs  are  found  within  its  bor- 
ders. In  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  and  on  the  borders  of  the  moun- 
tain ranges  of  the  Chanate,  El  Diabolo  Puerco,  and  Pilares,  swarm 
numbers  of  the  Apaches  Mescaleros  and  Farones,  who  are  often  en- 
gaged in  war  with  the  savage  and  robber  tribes  of  Cumanches, 
whose  constant  inroads  into  the  Mexican  territory  are  a  source  of 
incessant  annoyance  and  insecurity  to  the  people  of  the  frontier.  In 
the  ravines  and  valleys  of  the  Sierra  de  los  Mimbres,  in  the  north- 
west of  the  State,  the  Apache  Mimbreiios  are  found,  while  further 
south,  in  the  wild  and  deep  dells  of  Tararecua  and  Santa  Sinforosa 
various  bands  of  the  Tarahuamares  still  pursue  their  hunter-life  in 
perfect  freedom. 

There  is  some  doubt,  in  consequence  of  the  conflict  of  authorities, 
as  to  the  divisions  of  the  State  of  Chihuahua.  According  to  the 
JS'oticias  Estadisticas  of  Seiior  Escudero,  published  in  1834,  it  was 
composed  of  four  districts :  Chihuahua,  Hidalgo,  Paso  del  Norte, 
and  Guadalupe  y  Calvo,  —  in  the  first  of  which  are  the  partidos  of 
Aldama,  Cosihuiriachi,  Papigochi,  and  "Jesus  Maria  de  Rosales  ;  — 
in  the  second,  the  partidos  of  Allende  and  Jimenez  ;  —  in  the  third, 
the  partidos  of  Galeanas  and  Janos  ;  —  and  in  the  fourth,  those  of 
Batopilas  and  Balleza  or  Tepehuanes.  According  to  an  article  pub- 
lished by  the  same  writer  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Museo  Mexi- 
cano,  in  1844,  he  apparently  entertains  the  opinion  that  the  same 
divisions  still  continue  ;  but,  if  the  authority  of  another  and  very 
positive  correspondent  of  the  same  work  is  to  be  relied  on  in  refer- 


336        CI.IMATI. PRODUCTIONS CATTLE  ESTATES. 

ence  to  the  last  mentioned  period,  Chihuahua  was  divided  into  the 
partidos  of  Aldama,  Allende,  Balleza,  Batopilas,  Concepcion,  Cosi- 
huiriachi,  Galeana,  Hidalgo,  Jimenez,  Paso,  and  Rosales,  formerly 
Tapacolmes. 

Nature  has  endowed  Chihuahua  with  a  pleasant  and  temperate 
climate  and  a  fertile  soil,  which  is  said  by  those  who  are  best  ac- 
quainted with  the  State  to  be  capable  of  producing  abundantly,  if 
the  county  is  ever  freed  from  savage  inroads  and  fdled  with  an  in- 
dustrious population  of  agriculturists.  The  forests,  the  streams,  the 
valleys  and  the  plains,  all  yield  their  tributes  of  valuable  articles  of 
trade.  Vast  herds  of  cattle  are  fed  upon  the  large  haciendas  de 
ganado  ;  and  the  mountains  are  veined  with  the  precious  deposits 
which  form  the  wealth  of  so  many  other  Mexican  States.  The 
prompt  settlement  of  the  frontier,  and  the  security  of  its  inhabitants 
against  the  Indians,  under  the  protection  of  armed  forces  by  the  con- 
terminous Republics,  seem  to  be  all  that  is  requisite  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fine  natural  resources  of  this  hitherto  neglected  State. 

Field  and  garden  cultivation  is  not  much  attended  to  by  the  pre- 
sent inhabitants  ;  but  wherever  farming  operations  are  carried  on  in 
suitable  spots,  corn,  wheat,  barley,  frijoles,  and  all  the  finest  fruits, 
plants  and  vegetables,  are  found  to  repay  bountifully  the  husband 
man's  labor.  Even  indigo  and  cotton  are  found  growing  wild  in 
some  of  the  districts,  notwithstanding  the  proximity  of  the  mountain 
region,  and  the  bleaker  exposure  of  the  soil. 

At  El  Paso  del  Norte,  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  is  cov 
ered  for  a  distance  of  seven  leagues  with  excellent  vineyards,  whose 
capital  fruit  produces  an  abundance  of  wine,  which  is  greedily  pur- 
chased in  the  markets  of  the  adjacent  States.  In  the  neighborhood 
of  Aldama,  Allende,  and  of  many  other  towns,  the  grape  is  also 
successfully  cultivated,  and  the  liquor  produced  is  highly  esteemed 
by  competent  judges.  But  the  chief  sources  of  the  present  pros- 
perity of  Chihuahua  are  its  mines  and  cattle.  The  best  data  in  our 
possession  assign  to  this  State  56  large  estates,  upon  all  of  which 
about  70,000  horses,  190,000  horned  cattle,  and  550,000  head  of 
sheep,  swine  and  goats  are  constantly  fed.  The  silver,  gold  and 
copper  mines  have  been  in  former  years  exceedingly  productive,  and 
even  in  1844,  the  mint  of  Chihuahua,  struck  $61,632  in  gold,  and 
290,000  in  silver.  In  1814,  the  coinage  of  the  same  institution 
reached  the  sum  of  $1,818,604  in  silver,  after  which  period  it  ceased 
operating  until  1832  ;  but  since  then  its  annual  emission  has  never 
exceeded  $544,244  in  coins  of  both  the  precious  metals.  Gold  was 
first  struck  at  this  mint  in  1841,  and  in  1842  it  sent  into  circulation 


MINT MINES PRINCIPAL    TOWNS CHIHUAHUA.  337 

$164,744,  since  which  its  issue  has  sensibly  decreased.  The  best 
co{)per  mines  at  present  known,  are  those  of  Santa  Rita,  near  the 
union  of  the  Rio  Florida  with  the  Rio  Conchas.  Veins  of  iron,  cin- 
nabar, lead,  sulphur,  coal,  and  nitre  have  been  found  and  explored; 
but  owing  to  the  disturbed  and  insecure  condition  of  the  State,  are 
altogether  abandoned. 

The  chief  mining  districts  and  mineral  deposits  are  at  Allende  or 
San  Bartolome;  Santa  Barbara ;  Chihuahua;  Cosihuiriachi ;  Santa 
Eulalia  ;  Jesus  Maria  ;  Loreto  ;  Moris;  Mulatos  ;  Minas  Nuevas  ; 
Parral ;  San  Pedro  ;  El  Refugio  ;  Santa  Rita  ;  Sierra  Rica  ;  Bato- 
pilas ;  Urique  y  Ximenes,  or  as  it  is  at  present  called,  Guajuquilla. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  product  of  these  mines  may  have  been 
extracted  from  the  Mexican  Republic,  before  they  were  coined,  by 
the  inland  trade  with  the  United  States,  which  has  been  carried  on 
extensively  for  many  years.  The  gold  dust,  especially,  both  of 
Chihuahua  and  New  Mexico,  has  formed  the  principal  return  for 
American  merchandize  ;  and  thus  the  diminution  of  the  Chihuahuan 
coinage  may  be  partially  accounted  for.  Nevertheless  we  are  in- 
formed by  the  best  authorities,  as  well  as  by  the  statistics  of  the 
nint,  that  the  mines  of  this  State  have  been  negligently  wrought  for 
iome  years  past  by  the  unsettled  inhabitants  of  the  frontier. 

The  chief  towns  in  the  State  are  the  capital,  Chihuahua,  situated 
4,640  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  28°  38'  north  latitude  and 
106°  30'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich,  containing  a  population 
of  from  12,000  to  15,000.  It  lies  in  a  beautiful  valley  opening  to- 
wards the  north,  and  hemmed  in,  on  the  other  sides,  by  the  arms  of 
the  Sierra  Madre.  The  city  is  regularly  built,  on  wide,  clean 
streets,  with  many  handsome  and  convenient  houses,  plentifully 
supplied  with  water,  which  is  brought  to  the  town  by  an  aqueduct 
extending  6,533  varas.  The  plaza,  or  public  square,  is  quite  impo- 
sing. Its  spacious  area  is  adorned  with  a  fountain  and  walks, 
with  benches  and  pillars  of  white  porphyry.  Three  sides  of  this 
square  are  occupied  with  public  edifices  and  stores,  while  on  the 
fourth  is  the  cathedral. 

The  other  towns  are  San  Pedro  de  Batopilas,  a  mining  post  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  Cordillera,  in  a  deep  dell ;  —  San  Jos6  del 
Parral,  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Sierra  Madre  on  the  southern  limit 
of  Chihuahua,  about  eighty  leagues  east  of  Batopilas,  containing 
about  5,000  inhabitants ;  Valle  de  San  Bartolom^,  on  the  road  from 
Chihuahua  to  Durango  ;  Allende,  with  11,000  inhabitants;  Santa 
Rosa  de  Cosihuiriachi,  with  3,000 ;  and  various  other  villages  and 
Presidios  of  lesser  note. 


338  EL    PASO    DEL    NORTE MILITARY    IMPORTANCE. 

One  of  the  most  important  towns  in  the  State  of  Chihuahua,  since 
the  annexation  of  a  part  of  Mexico  to  the  United  States  by  the 
treaty  of  1848,  is  El  Paso  del  Norte.  According  to  the  observations 
of  Dr.  Wislizenius,  it  lies  in  31°  45'  50"  north  latitude,  3,814  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  distant  about  340 
miles  from  Santa  Fe,  and  about  240  from  the  town  of  Chihuahua. 
The  Rio  Grande  or  Rio  del  Norte,  having  escaped  the  mountain 
pass,  runs  here  in  an  open  fertile  field,  at  the  beginning  of  which  El 
Paso  is  situated.  The  town  is  principally  built  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  while  a  few  houses  are  on  the  left.  Stretched  out 
along  the  stream  for  many  miles,  all  its  dwellings  are  surrounded  and 
embosomed  in  groves,  gardens,  orchards,  vineyards  and  cultivated 
fields  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  The  position  of  this  town  is  an 
important  one,  inasmuch  as  the  road  by  it  is  the  only  practicable 
one  for  wagons  leading  from  Santa  Fe  to  Chihuahua.  A  circuitous 
road  might,  in  case  of  necessity,  be  made  from  the  right  bank  of 
the  river,  on  the  northern  end  of  the  .Tornado  del  Muerto,  to  the  cop- 
per mines  near  the  sources  of  the  Gila,  and  thence  by  Carmen  to 
Chihuahua;  but  it  is  by  far  more  mountainous,  winding  and  diffi- 
cult than  the  direct  road  through  El  Paso  which  has  long  been  the 
only  highway  between  New  Mexico  and  Chihuahua.  Besides  these 
advantages  of  commercial  intercourse,  the  point  is  deemed  of  the 
greatest  value  as  a  military  post,  in  which  a  well  provided  garrison 
could  hold  out  against  a  ten-fold  stronger  force. ^  The  population 
of  the  town  proper,  and  of  the  line  of  settlements  extending  about 
twenty  miles  down  the  river  is  estimated  at  from  ten  to  twelve 
thousand. 

Besides  these  important  considerations,  the  valley  of  El  Paso 
is  probably  the  most  fertile  country  along  the  river.  In  addition  to 
maize  and  wheat  the  inhabitants  raise  a  large  quantity  of  fruits,  such 
as  apples,  pears,  figs,  quinces,  peaches,  &c.,  but  especially  an  ex- 
cellent grape  from  which  the  celebrated  El  Paso  wine  is  prepared, 
and  a  liquor  is  made  called  by  the  Americans  "Pass  Whiskey." 
The  grape  which  is  so  extensively  cultivated  is  of  Spanish  origin  ; 
it  is  blue,  very  rich  and  juicy,  and  produces  a  strong,  sweet,  south- 
ern, straw-colored  wine.  For  want  of  barrels,  the  natives  preserve 
the  liquor  in  earthern  jars  or  in  ox  skins.  The  wine  has  a  strong 
body,  and  when  mellowed  by  age,  has  the  flavor  of  Malaga.  Be- 
sides the  blue  grape,  a  white  species  is  also  raised,  having  the  flavor 
of  the  Muscadine,  but  it  is  believed  that  it  is  not  used  for  wine. 

'  Dr.  Wislizenius 's  Memoir,  ;tc.,  &c.,  1846,  ]•■  41. 


EL  PASO   WINE,  ETC. ANTIQUITIES INDIAN    RAVAGES.       339 

The  mode  of  cultivating  the  vineyards  in  this  region  is  simple. 
The  vines  are  covered  in  winter  with  earth,  are  kept  clear  from 
weeds,  hoed  and  pruned  at  the  proper  season,  but  they  are  not  at- 
tached to  stakes  or  espaliers.  The  soil  and  climate  are  so  genial 
that  less  labor  is  required  than  in  other  countries  ;  but  a  great  deal 
of  the  fertility  of  the  beautiful  valley  must  be  ascribed  to  the  in- 
genious system  of  irrigation,  which  is  produced  by  a  dam  con- 
structed in  the  river  above  El  Paso,  which  turns  a  large  body  of 
water  into  a  canal.  This  canal,  spreading  into  numerous  branches 
and  re-uniting  again,  provides  all  the  cultivated  land  with  a  suffi- 
ciency of  moisture. 

Some  remains  of  antiquity  are  found  in  the  north-western  part  of 
the  State,  lying  near  the  village  and  creek  of  the  Casas  Grandes, 
between  Janos  and  Galeana.  Ruins  of  large  houses,  known  as 
"  Casas  Grandes"  in  the  language  of  the  country,  exist  in  this 
neighborhood,  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  or  adobes,  and  squared 
timber.  They  are  three  stories  high  with  a  gallery  of  wood  and 
stairway  from  the  exterior,  with  very  small  rooms  and  narrow  doors 
in  the  upper  stories  but  without  means  of  entrance  in  the  lower. 
Water  was  brought  to  the  spot  from  a  neighboring  spring  by  a 
canal;  and  a  watch-tower,  commanding  an  extensive  prospect, 
stands  on  an  elevation  two  leagues  south-west  of  it.  A  series  of 
mounds,  containing  earthen  vessels,  weapons,  instruments  of  stone, 
and  fragments  of  white,  blue  and  violet  colored  pottery,  extends 
alonsr  the  banks  of  the  Casas  Grandes  and  Janos  creeks. 

The  State  of  Chihuahua  has  suffered  and  still  suffers  greatly  and 
constantl}'  from  the  incursions  of  the  barbarians  who  ravage  her 
frontiers  and  descend  boldly  into  the  very  heart  of  the  settlements. 
The  uncertainty  of  life  and  insecurity  of  property  have,  of  course, 
prevented  the  development  of  a  region  so  valuable  for  its  mineral 
and  agricultural  resources  ;  nor  is  it  likely  that  any  sensible  progress 
will  be  made  until  the  four  warring  tribes  of  Gilenos,  Mesclaros, 
Mimbrenos  and  Lipanes,  are  destroyed  by  the  advance  of  the  civi- 
lized nations  from  the  north  as  well  as  from  the  south. 

A  recent  Mexican  author,  in  describing  the  condition  of  Chihua- 
hua, declares  that  at  "  present  every  hacienda  must  be  converted  into 
a  castle  of  the  middle  ages,  every  shepherd  into  a  soldier:  —  proprie- 
tors of  estates  enjoy  no  security  of  their  possessions,  and  the  com- 
mon people  gather  themselves  into  villages  to  escape  from  the  ex- 
posed country  in  which  they  must  become  the  victims  of  the  blood- 
tliirsty  savages  and  robbers  from  the  wilderness." 


40  THE    BOLSON     DE    MAPIMI. 

There  is  a  singular  geological  formation  in  the  northern  part  of 
Mexico,  lying  on  the  road  between  the  cities  of  Chihuahua  and  Mon- 
terey, and  extending  northwardly  from  the  towns  and  haciendas  of 
Mapimi,  San  Juan,  San  Lorenzo  and  San  Sebastian  towards  the 
Rio  Grande,  called  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  or  Pouch  of  Mapimi. 
Leaving  Mapimi,  the  road  continues  about  three  miles  to  the  eastern 
mountain  chain,  and  then  winding  nearly  two  miles  through  a  caiion, 
or  gorge,  it  leads  to  a  very  open  level  valley,  which  is  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Bolson.  Towards  the  right  of  the  road,  east- 
wardly,  at  the  distance  of  from  three  to  five  miles,  a  steep,  high 
mountain  chain  of  limestone,  rises  precipitously,  while  another 
chain  towers  up  to  the  left,  at  the  distance  of  about  twelve  miles. 
Both  chains  gradually  diverge,  but  especially  the  eastern  arm,  which 
stretches  north-eastwardly  and  then  bends  to  the  south-west,  at  an 
angle,  leaving  a  deep  cul  de  sac  or  depression  in  the  middle  from 
which  the  country  has  probably  derived  its  name.  All  around  is  an 
immense  chapparal  plain,  while  in  the  distance  the  Rio  Nasas  runs 
towards  the  north  into  the  immense  basin,  and  forms  the  large  Laguna 
de  Tlagualila,  usually  set  down  on  maps  and  mentioned  in  geographi- 
cal works  as  Lake  Cayman.  The  Nasas  is  said  by  Dr.  WisHzenius 
to  be  the  Nile  of  the  Bolson.  Coming  about  ]  50  leagues  from  the 
western  part  of  Durango,  from  the  Sianori  mountains,  it  runs  north- 
westwardly and  northerly  towards  this  Pouch,  and  the  wide  and 
level  country  along  the  river  is  yearly  inundated  by  the  floods,  and 
owes  its  fertility  to  this  circumstance.  The  limits  of  the  Bolson  de 
Mapimi  have  never  been  clearly  defined  either  geographically  or 
politically  for  its  immense  wilderness  has  been  neither  fully  explored 
or  occupied  in  consequence  of  the  danger  of  encountering  the  rob- 
ber hordes  by  whom  its  recesses  are  infested.  The  northern  portion 
is  supposed  to  belong  to  the  State  of  Chihuahua,  and  the  southern 
to  Durango.  Nor  are  its  general  physical  properties  clearly  known, 
though  the  common  and  perhaps  erroneous  impression  in  the  coun- 
try is  that  it  is  a  low,  flat,  swampy  country  and  a  mere  desert.  The 
two  terminating  points  of  Dr.  Wislizenius's  transit  through  the 
Bolson  are  Mapimi,  where  he  entered  it,  and  El  Paso,  or  a  point 
between  Paso  and  Parras,  where  he  left  it.  At  Mapimi,  the  eleva- 
tion above  the  sea  was  4,487  feet;  in  the  valley  of  the  Nasas,  at 
San  Sebastian,  3,785;  at  San  Lorenzo,  3,815;  at  San  Juan,  3,775; 
and  towards  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Bolson,  at  El  Paso,  3,990, 
and  at  Parras,  4,987.  We  perceive,  therefore,  that  the  valley  of 
of  the  Nasas,  which  may  be  called  the  vein  and  centre  of  the  Bol- 
son has  a  mean  elevation  of  3,800  feet;  and  though  from  500  to 


MODES  OF  TRAVELLING  AND  TRANSPORTATION LITERA.       341 

1,000  feet  lower  than  the  surrounding  county,  it  nevertheless  occu- 
pies a  considerable  elevation  above  the  sea. 

The  soil  in  the  Bolson  is  less  sandy  and  of  a  better  quality  than 
in  the  higher  country.  Besides  wheat  and  corn,  a  quantity  of  cot- 
ton is  raised  in  the  valley  of  the  river,  and  wine  has  been  success- 
fully tried.  The  climate  is  represented  to  be  so  mild,  that  the  root 
of  the  cotton  plant  is  seldom  destroyed  in  winter,  and  thrives  for 
many  years. 

We  have  dwelt  upon  the  character  and  qualities  of  this  extraor- 
dinary depression  among  the  mountain  ridges  of  northern  Mexico, 
because  we  believe  that  when  it  is  finally  explored,  the  savages  ex- 
terminated, and  the  country  opened  to  the  advance  of  civilization, 
El  Bolson  de  Mapimi  may  become  one  of  the  most  important  and 
perhaps  fruitful  basins  among  the  temperate  lands  of  Mexico. 


CONCLUSION. 

We  have  completed  the  proposed  task  of  sketching  the  history 
and  geography  of  Mexico,  accompanied  by  notices  of  its  social  and 
political  condition,  and  of  the  remains  of  antiquity  sprinkled  over 
its  territory.  We  acknowledge  the  imperfection  of  the  work,  and 
its  unsatisfactoriness  even  to  ourselves.  But  we  have  diligently 
searched  the  best  authorities  that  could  be  obtained  at  home  and 
abroad,  and,  w^hile  we  have  omitted  nothing  that  might  be  relied  on 
for  the  purpose  of  displaying  the  physical  and  intellectual  character 
of  the  country  and  people,  we  have  endeavored  to  indicate  clearly 
those  historical  antecedents  and  geographical  peculiarities  upon 
which  the  future  progress  or  decline  of  the  nation  is  to  be  founded. 

Perhaps  no  countries  are  more  difficult  for  full  and  minute  de- 
scription, in  their  present  social  state,  than  Mexico  and  the  South 
American  nations.  Mexico,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a  mountain  coun- 
try, with  very  few  navigable  streams  opening  the  interior  to  travel- 
lers, and  w^ith  badly  constructed  roads,  w'hich  w^ere  scarcely  adequate 
for  the  most  needful  transportation  required  for  the  subsistence  of 
the  people.  As  soon  as  the  way-f&rer  left  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  or 
of  the  Pacific  he  penetrated  the  glens  of  lofty  mountains,  or  slowly 
toiled  along  the  inclined  plains  of  their  precipitous  sides.  Wide 
levels  opened  in  the  interior,  at  considerable  distances,  but  these 
were  separated  by  ridges  of  the  Cordillera  which  were,  in  fact,  ram- 
parts capable  of  defending  a  warlike  people  almost  without  the  aid 
of  military  improvement.  Until  within  a  few  years,  the  back  of  a 
horse  or  of  a  mule;  an  old  fashioned  Litera  swung  between  two  beasts 
2r 


MULES ARRIEROS CONDUCTA COACHES WAGONS.      343 

of  burthen,  or  an  antiquated  clumsy  Mexican  coach,  were  the  onlv 
means  of  travelling.  Of  these,  the  litera,  a  species  of  palanquin  in 
which  the  traveller- reclined  at  ease  upon  his  mattress  and  cushions, 
was  by  far  the  most  comfortable,  and  the  use  of  this  convenient  ve- 
hicle is  still  continued  especially  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country 
where  exposure  to  the  sun  is  dangerous,  and  into  which  the  modern 
diligence  or  stage  coach  has  not  been  introduced  from  the  factories 
of  the  United  States.  In  many  portions  of  Mexico,  where  the 
transportation  has  been  for  centuries  carried  on  by  Arrieros 
with  their  mules  and  jackasses,  scarcely  any  thing  of  the  original 
road  remains,  while  the  path  that  has  been  so  long  trodden  by  the 
single  file  Jitajos  of  these  useful  beasts  has  been  worn  so  deeply  by 
their  feet  in  the  yielding  soil  or  rock,  that  the  animals  themselves 
are  often  concealed  by  the  steep  sides  of  the  gully.  Thousands  of 
sturdy  Mexicans  have  for  years  been  employed  as  Arrieros  in  this 
business  of  mule-carriage.  The  "  Conducta"  is  recognized  as  one 
of  the  traditionary,  time  honored,  and  almost  constitutional  institu- 
tions of  the  Republic,  and  it  may  easily  be  conceived  that  with  so 
powerful  a  body  of  honest,  industrious  men  opposed  to  any  new 
scheme  of  transportation,  it  will  require  a  long  time  for  the  enlight- 
ened requirements  of  extended  commerce  to  displace  it.  The  fidelity 
of  this  class  has  been  already,  elsewhere,  alluded  to;  and  whilst  it  is 
personally  reliable  and  responsible,  its  members  are  scarcely  ever 
attacked  by  the  bands  of  robbers  infesting  the  recesses  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  laying  in  wait  for  less  numerous,  resolute  or  organized 
way-farers.  Millions  were,  and  still  are,  often  entrusted  to  them 
with  perfect  confidence  by  the  government  and  the  people. 

Nevertheless,  within  the  last  fifteen  years  the  growing  manufac- 
tures of  Mexico  required  a  stouter  means  of  transportation  of  heavy 
machinery  than  the  limbs  of  a  mule,  and  the  consequence  was  that 
intelligent  foreijjners  availing;  themselves  of  this  want  in  the  first 
instance,  gradually  introduced  heavy  wagons  like  those  of  the  Euro- 
pean roulage  system,  into  which,  by  degrees,  they  forced  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  bulky  commercial  freight  which  was  to  be  borne  from  the 
coast  into  the  interior.  Simultaneously  with  this  encroachment  on  the 
mule,  the  arriero,  and  the  litera,  appeared  the  American  stage  coach, 
built  in  New  York ;  and  together  with  the  coach  and  its  spirited 
horses,  came  the  "Yankee  driver,"  whose  accommodating  and  daring 
character  soon  made  him  a  favorite  with  those  whose  trade  he  in  some 
measure  mjured,  though  it  did  not  serve  to  protect  him  or  his  pas- 
sengers from  the  attacks  of  robbers.  The  line  of  diligences  or 
coaches  established  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  capital,  passing  through 


344  MEXICAN    HABIT    OF    HOME-STAYING. 

Jalapa,  Perote  and  Puebla,  was  gradually  extended  northwards 
from  the  capital  through  the  principal  mining  and  commercial  cities 
of  the  north,  and  thus  the  means  of  swift  and  comfortable  travel  was 
at  length,  though  only  recently,  supplied  to  a  small  part  of  Mexico. 
The  danger  of  robbers,  the  wretchedness  of  the  roads,  the  dis- 
comfort of  inns  and  the  old  fashioned  Mexican  habit  of  staying  at 
home,  have,  therefore,  hitherto  prevented  the  masses  of  the  people 
from  going  abroad.  A  journey  of  two  or  three  hundred  miles,  for 
any  purpose  but  business  or  emigration,  is  still  regarded  as  an  im- 
portant undertaking.  When  families  depart  on  such  an  expedition 
the  preparations  embrace  almost  every  comfort  and  luxury  required 
at  home,  except  a  cow  and  a  piano.  Until  very  lately  nothing  but 
shelter  or  the  commonest  food  was  to  be  had  at  the  miserable  mesones 
or  taverns  along  the  roads.  In  most  of  the  less  frequented  regions 
this  is  still  the  case.  It  was  necessary  therefore  that  travellers 
should  be  accompanied  by  a  full  complement  of  servants,  that  they 
should  carry  with  them  an  ample  supply  of  bedding  and  table  fur- 
niture, that  their  long  and  numerous  train  should  be  fully  armed  and 
equipped  to  fight  its  way  if  necessary,  and  that  they  should  be  con- 
tent to  halt  frequently,  journey  slowly,  and  linger  on  the  road.  In- 
conveniences like  these  necessarily  localized  and  confined  all  classes 
of  Mexicans  except  the  very  rich  or  those  whose  business  impera- 
tively required  them  to  encounter  a  life  of  expensive  adventure. 
Nor  was  Mexico  a  country  of  watering  places  and  sea-side  fashion, 
in  which  it  was  customary,  at  certain  seasons,  for  all  whose  means 
permitted,  to  fly  from  the  city  to  the  fields  or  the  shore  for  recreation 
and  health.  Invalids,  occasionally,  under  the  stringent  orders  of 
physicians,  crawled  to  the  warm  baths  or  mineral  waters  which  are 
abundant  in  a  volcanic  country,  but  they  were  not  followed  by  the 
idle  crowds  who  frequent  similar  places  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  Tens  of  thousands  are  now  living  in  the  city  of  Mexico 
who  have  not  even  crossed  the  lake  to  Tezcoco  ;  while  the  fashion- 
able or  the  wealthy  are  perfectly  satisfied  if  they  make  an  annual 
peregrination  in  the  month  of  May  of  twelve  miles  to  San  Agustin 
de  las  Cuevas,  where  they  spend  three  days  of  frivolity,  gambling, 
cockfighting,  and  dancing.  The  journeys  of  the  rest  of  the  year  are 
confined,  as  they  are  elsewhere  in  the  Republic,  to  an  evening  drive 
or  ride  on  the  Passeos  and  Alameda,  or  a  more  extended  excursion 
of  a  few  miles  to  Tacubaya  or  San  Angel.  It  was  not  the  usage, 
in  the  early  days  of  Mexico  or  during  the  viceroyal  government,  to 
travel  for  pleasure  in  a  country  conquered  from  the  Indians,  and 
still  ravaged  by  them  or  made  insecure.    The  custom  of  the  Span- 


WANT    OF    EXPLORATION MODERN   ADVANCEMENT.  345 

iard  has  become  a  habit  of  the  Mexican.  It  may,  in  truth,  be  said 
that  the  spirit  of  travel  does  not  rule  in  Mexico,  and  that  her  people 
are  stationary.  Railways  do  not  traverse  her  valleys  and  plains,  nor 
do  electric  telegraphs  convey  the  thoughts  of  her  people  thousands 
of  miles  in  a  minute.  Even  the  mail  system  is  expensive,  incom- 
plete and  inadequate.  Neither  a  steamboat  nor  a  locomotive  belongs 
to  the  nation. 

In  addition  to  all  these  habitual,  accidental  and  geographical  dif- 
ficulties of  travelling  over  and  exploring  this  mountain  country,  its 
constant  revolutionary  state  since  the  rebellion  against  Spain  has 
tended  to  retain  people  as  much  as  possible  either  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  their  famihes  or  of  their  business  and  interests.  Nor  has 
scientific  education  been  extended  sufficiently  to  form  a  large  or  en- 
thusiastic class  of  engineers  who  would  have  traversed  the  land  and 
combined  the  results  of  their  observations.  A  few  scattered  students 
have,  indeed,  published  detached  essays  upon  portions  of  the  Repub- 
lic, and  the  Comision  de  Estadistica  Militar  is  now  engaged  in 
gathering  statistical  and  geographical  reports  of  the  several  States. 
But  the  elements  from  which  these  bulletins  are  constructed  do  not 
seem  to  be  collected  upon  any  uniform  system  of  very  responsible 
scientific  inquiry.  The  local  authorities  from  whom  much  of  the 
numerical  information  is  necessarily  obtained,  if  they  are  connected 
with  any  of  the  branches  of  taxation,  or  revenue  collection,  are  gen- 
erally unreliable  or  corrupt,  for,  in  consequence  of  the  system  of 
peculation  which  has  been  carried  on  during  the  late  disorganized 
epoch  of  Mexican  history,  it  was  their  interest  to  conceal  rather 
than  to  disclose  facts,  especially  when  those  facts  manifested  the 
great  value  or  production  of  the  region  over  which  they  presided. 

Nevertheless,  amid  all  these  sad  excuses  for  insufficiency  or  in- 
accuracy, we  may  congratulate  Mexico  upon  the  effort  which  she  is 
now  making  to  redeem  herself  from  the  past  opprobrium.  The  war 
with  the  United  States  has  taught  her  many  things,  social  as  well 
as  political.  Education  is  beginning  to  be  more  valued  and  ex- 
tended. Periodicals  and  newspapers  are  more  freely  published  and 
diffused.  Their  leading  articles  and  scientific  communications  show 
that  new  classes  of  writers  as  well  as  politicians  are  coming  readily 
into  the  field  in  a  period  of  assured  peace  and  order.  These  two 
elements  of  national  progress  will  enable  Mexico  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  herself,  and  when  her  students  disclose  the  result  of 
their  discoveries,  we  shall  be  glad  to  see  our  imperfect  but  honest 
efforts  superseded  by  a  work  that  will  confer  honor  upon  Spanish 
science  and  literature. 


346    PROFILE MEXICO  TO  SANTA   FE SANTA  FE  TO  THE  GULF. 

APPENDIX    NO.     1. 


1st. 


Elevation  above  the  sea  from  tlie 
city  of  Mexico  to  Santa  Fe. 


PROFILE  OF  THE  PLATEAU— MEXICO  TO  SANTA  FE— SANTA  FE  TO  THE  GULF. 

Ihf  order  to  afford  the  geographical  student  an  idea  of  the  central  configuration 
of  Mexico,  we  annex  the  following  tables  of  the  lines  of  levelling  made  by  Baron 
Humboldt,  Dr.  Wislizenius,  Oteiza,  and  Burkart,  northwardly  from  the  city  of 
Mexico  to  Santa  Fe  ;  euid  eastwardly  from  Santa  Fe  to  Reynosa  near  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  From  the  first  of  these  we  learn  that  the  plateau  which  forms  the  broad 
crest  of  the  Mexican  Cordillera  by  no  means  sinks  down  to  an  inconsiderable  height 
as  was  long  supposed  to  be  the  case  but  that  it  maintains,  throughout,  its  majestic 
elevation. 

2d.  From    Santa  Fe   in   New   Mexico 
to  Reynosa  on  the  Rio  Grande. 
Santa  Fe 

3milesN.  of  Albur- 
querque  near  the 
Rio  Grande 
Jornado  del  Muerto 
Brazito 
Upon  crossing  of  the 

Rio  Grande 
Paso  del  Norte 
S.  of  Rio  Carmen 
S.  of  Gallego 
Rio  Sacramento 
Chihuahua 
Aguachi 
Cosihuiriachl 
Bachimba 
El'Saucillo 
Cadena 
Mapimi 

El  Bolson  de  Mapimi  3,785 

4,985 

6,104 

5,240 

3,381 

1,626 

1,354 

1,006 

417 

422 

104 


Mexico 

7,469  ft. 

above  sea. 

Tula 

6,733  " 

" 

" 

San  Juan  del  Rio 

6,490  " 

" 

" 

dueretaro 

6,362  " 

" 

" 

Celaya 

6,017  " 

" 

" 

Salamanca 

5,761  " 

" 

" 

Guanajuato 

6,836  " 

" 

<' 

Silao 

5,911  " 

" 

" 

Villa  de  Leon 

6,133  " 

(t 

" 

Lagos 

6,376  " 

a 

" 

Aguas  Calientes 

6,261  " 

ti 

" 

San  Luis  Potosi 

6,090  " 

<' 

(( 

Zacatecas 

8,038  " 

(( 

" 

Fresnillo 

7,244  " 

<• 

" 

Durango 

6,848  " 

" 

cc 

Parras 

4,985  " 

(( 

" 

Saltillo, 

5,240  " 

u 

" 

El  Bolson  de  Mapimi  3,785  " 

t( 

(> 

Chihuahua 

4,638  " 

(( 

u 

Cosihuiriachi 

6,273  " 

t< 

<( 

Paso  del  Norte  on  ) 
the  Rio  Grande  ) 

3,810  " 

(( 

(£ 

Santa  Fe  in  New  ) 
Mexico                S 

7,047  " 

(( 

l( 

7,047  ft.  i 

above 

sea 

4,813  " 

(( 

(( 

4,452  " 
3,918  " 

" 

3,797  " 

" 

3,810  " 
4,219  " 
5,317  " 
4,940  " 
4,638  " 

(( 

5,952  " 
6,273  " 
3,956  " 

3,955  " 

" 

5,056  " 

4,487  " 

(( 

Parras 

La  Encantada 
Saltillo 
Rinconada 
Monterey 
Marin 
Ceralvo 
Mier 
Camargo 
'  Reynosa 

"  If  we  consider," — says  Humboldt  in  his  Views  of  Nature, — "that  in  the  north 
and  south  direction  the  difference  of  latitude  between  Santa  Fe  and  the  city  of  Mexico 
is  more  than  sixteen  degrees,  and  that  consequently  the  distance  in  a  meridian  direc- 
tion, independently  of  curvatures  on  the  road  is  more  than  960  miles,  we  are  led  to 
ask  whether  in  the  whole  world,  there  exists  any  similar  formation  of  equal  extent 
and  height,  between  5,000  and  7,500  feet,  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Four-wheeled 
wagons  can  travel  from  Mexico  to  Santa  Fe.  The  plateau  whose  levelling  is  here 
described  is  formed  solely  by  the  broad  undulating  flattened  crest  of  the  chain  of  the 
Mexican  Andes  ;  it  is  not  the  swelling  of  a  valley  between  two  mountain  chains, 
such  as  the  Great  Basin  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  of 
California  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  ;  or  the  elevated  plateau  of  the  Lake  of  Ti- 
ticaca,  between  the  eastern  and  northern  chains  of  Bolivia  ;  or  the  plateau  of  Thibet 
between  the  Himilaya  and  duenlun,  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere." — Page  209, 
Humb.  Views  of  Nature. 

1  See  Huiiiholdt's  Views  of  Nature,  London  L-dition,  1850,  p.  206,  and  Dr.  Wislizenius's  Profiles  of 
the  fountry  in  his  Memoir  on  New  Mexico,  &.C.,  &c. 


MEXICAN  COINS,   WEIGHTS   AND  MEASURES.  347 

APPENDIX    NO.   2. 


MEXICANCOINS. 

1  onza — gold,  =  16  dollars. 
1  peso  —  silver,  =  1  dollar. 
1  real  —  silver,    =  12^  cents. 
1  medio  real  —  silver,  =  6i  cents. 
1  quartillo  —  copper,  =  Sg-  cents. 
1  tlaco  —  copper,  =  1-j-'^  cents. 

MEASURES. 
1  foot  =  0.928  feet  English. 

1  vara  (three  feet  Mexican)  =  2.784  feet  English  =  2  feet  9.3141  inches  English, 
1  legua  (26.63  to  1  meridian)  =  5000  varas  =  2.636  miles  English. 

WEIGHTS. 
1  onza — (8  ochavos)  =  1  ounce. 
1  marco  —  (8  onzas)  =  h  pound. 
1  libra  —  (2  marcos)  =  1  pound. 
1  arroba  —  (25  libras)  =  25  pounds. 
1  quintal —  (4  aiTobas)  =  100  pounds. 
1  carga  —  (3  quintals)  =  300  pounds. 
1  fanega — (140  pounds)  =  2  bushels  nearly. 
]  almuer — (almuerza)  =  iV  of  a  fanega. 
1  frasco  =  5  pints  nearly.' 

TABLE  OF  LAND  MEASURES  ADOPTED  IN  THE  MEXICAN  UEPUBLIC. 

V-imp«nfMpn<nirP«                         Figures  of       Leiigih  of  the  Breadth  in      Areas  in  sq.  Aie:is  in  Cn- 
wames  ot  Measures.  measures.        «"  ■-  ■'"•—• ■— -  !.„„„..;„, 

Sitio  de  ganado  mayor,  Square 

Criadero  de  ganado  mayor.  Square 

Sitio  de  ganado  menor,  Square 

Criadero  de  ganado  menor,  Square 

„,,,.,    ^-  )    Right  angled 

Caballeria  de  tierra        >  n  i 

)    parallelogram 

Media  cabelleria.  Square 

Cuarto  caballeria  or  su-  )    Right  tuigled 

erte  de  tierra,  )   parallelogram 

Fanega  de  sembradura  >    Right  angled 

de  maiz,  )    parallelogram 

Solar  para  casa.  Square 

Fundo  legal  para  pueblos,  Square 

The  Mexican  Vara  is  the  unit  of  all  measure  of  length,  the  pattern  and  size  of 
which  are  taken  from  the  Caslilian  Vara  of  the  Mark  of  Burgos,  which  is  the  legal  vara 
used  in  the  Republic.  Fifty  Mexican  varas  nnake  a  measure  called  Cordcl,  used  in 
measuring  lands. 

The  legal  league  contains  900  cordels,  or  5000  varas.  The  league  is  divided  into 
halves  and  quarters  —  this  being  the  only  division  made  of  it.  Anciently  the  Mexi- 
can league  was  divided  into  three  miles,  the  mile  into  a  thousand  paces  of  Solomon, 
and  one  of  these  paces  into  five-thirds  of  a  Mexican  vara  —  consequently  the  league 
had  3000  paces  of  Solomon.  This  division  is  recognized  in  leg-al  affairs,  though  it 
has  been  long  in  disuse.  The  mark  was  equivalent  to  two  varas  and  seven-eighths, 
that  is,  8  marks  contained  22  varas,  and  was  used  in  land  measure. 

See  Appendix  No.  9  to  Captain  Halleck's  Report  on  Californian   affairs, — pages 
119  and  145  of  Executive  Document  No.  17,  31st  Congress,  1st  Session. 
'  See  Dr.  Wislizenius's  Memoir,  &c.,  &c.  p.  141. 


1  varas. 

varas. 

varas. 

bellerias. 

5,000 

5,000 

25,000,000 

41.023 

2,500 

2,500 

6,250,000 

10.255 

3,333i 

3,333i 

ll,lll,llU 

18.2.32 

1,6661 

1,6661 

2,777,777f 

4.558 

1,104 

552 

609,408 

1 

552 

552 

304,704 

i 

552 

276 

152,352 

1 

376 

184 

56,784 

tV 

50 

50 

2,500 

0.004 

1,200 

1,200 

1,440,000 

2.036 

BOOK    Yl. 


THE   TERRITORY   OF   NEW   MEXICO 

A  K  D 

THE   STATE  OF   CALIFORNIA, 

AS  PARTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


BOOK     VI. 

THE     TERRITORY    OF    NEW    MEXICO 

AND 

THE   STATE   OF  CALIFORNIA; 

AS    PARTS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF    NORTH    AMERICA. 


THE   TERRITORY  OF   NEW  MEXICO. 

EXPLORATION    OF    THE     FAR    AVEST LONG,    NICOLLET,   FREMONT 

SANTA    FE    TRADE  FIRST    ADVENTURERS  CARAVANS  NEW 

MEXICO     ERECTED    BY   CONGRESS   INTO    A    TERRITORY GEOLOGI- 
CAL     STRUCTURE    OF     NEW     MEXICO THE     RIO     GRANDE  ITS 

VALUE SOIL PRODUCTS IRRIGATION CATTLE INDIANS 

MINES GOLD SILVER COPPER IRON GYPSUM SALT 

CLIMATE PUEBLO   INDIANS WILD  INDIANS  ENUMERATED 

NUMBER  OF    PUEBLO    INDIANS CENSUS PROXIMATE     PRESENT 

POPULATION  CHARACTER     OF     PEOPLE     AND     GOVERNMENT  

SANTA    FE ALBURQUERQUE VALLEY  OF   TOAS STATISTICS   OF 

SANTA  FE  TRADE,   ETC. ITINERARY  FROM   FORT    LEAVENWORTH 

TO    SANTA    FE    AND    EL    PASO. 

It  was  not  until  a  few  years  ago  that  the  people  of  the  United 
States  generally  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  the  development  of 
those  vast  regions  lying  in  the  far  west  and  along  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  An  occasional  adventurer  or  foreign  traveller  re- 
turned from  the  Rocky  Mountains  after  a  pleasant  but  wild  sojourn 
among  the  trappers  and  Indians,  and  told  his  romantic  stories  to  ea- 
ger listeners.  At  length,  Major  Long  penetrated  their  recesses,— 
Nicollet  sought  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  —  and  Fremont  not 
only  pushed  his  way  beyond  them,  but  traversed  the  majestic  snow- 
buried  summits  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  explored  the  genial 
lands  lying  at  their  feet  in  California. 

Meanwhile  a  trade  had  grown  up,  midway  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific,  between  our  western  cities  and  the  northern  States  of 
Mexico.  But  this,  too,  was  an  intercourse  of  mingled  adventure, 
romance  and  commerce.  Its  objects  and  results  were  not  generally 
known  or  recounted  in  the  gazettes.     Its  hardy  pursuers  who  were 


352   SANTA  FE  TRADE FIRST  ADVENTURERS CARAVANS. 

equally  ready  for  a  bargain  or  a  battle,  did  not  commonly  amuse 
themselves  either  with  correspondence  or  authorship,  and  accord- 
ingly, "The  Santa  Fe  Trade''  remained  as  much  a  matter  of  mys- 
tery to  the  mass  of  Americans  as  the  marches  of  those  great  cara- 
vans which  in  the  east  annually  traverse  the  desert  towards  the 
tomb  of  the  Prophet. 

The  origin  of  this  trade  is  not  definitely  known.  A  certain  James 
Pursely,  who  wandered  in  the  lonely  regions  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi about  the  year  1805,  and  learned  something  respecting  the 
settlements  in  New  Mexico  from  Indians  near  the  sources  of 
the  Platte  river,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  Jimerican  who 
visited  Santa  Fe  in  this  direction  ;  though,  in  the  previous  year,  a 
French  Creole,  named  La  Lande,  had  been  despatched  by  Mr. 
Morrison,  a  merchant  of  Kaskaskia,  with  orders  if  possible  to  reach 
Santa  Fe.  It  is  known  that  this  person  arrived  at  his  destination, 
but  was  so  delighted  wnth  the  country  and  so  well  entertained,  that 
he  never  returned,  and  probably  established  himself  in  successful 
trade  upon  the  capital  of  his  confiding  employer. 

From  this  period,  and  after  the  Southern  Expedition  of  Captain 
Pike,  very  little  is  heard  of  this  distant  region  until  a  caravan  was 
fitted  out  under  the  auspices  of  Messrs.  Knight,  Beard,  Chambers, 
and  about  eight  other  persons,  in  the  year  1812.  They  reached 
Santa  Fe  in  an  unlucky  hour.  The  revolutionary  movements 
which  had  been  disturbing  Mexico  were  just  then  checked  by  the 
successes  of  the  royalists,  and  the  traders  were  siezed  as  spies, 
their  goods  confiscated,  and  themselves  confined  in  the  prisons  of 
Chihuahua  for  nine  years,  when  McKnight  and  his  comrades  were 
finally  released.  As  soon  as  these  luckless  adventurers  reached 
the  United  States,  their  return,  their  narratives  and  the  probable 
settlement  of  the  Mexican  revolution  by  the  successes  of  Iturbide, 
induced  others  to  fit  out  expeditions  at  once.  A  merchant  of  Ohio, 
named  Glenn,  and  Captain  Becknell,  of  Missouri,  set  out  forthwith  ; 
and  in  1824,  about  eighty  traders,  accompanied  by  several  intel- 
ligent and  cultivated  Missourians,  departed  not  only  with  pack- 
mules,  which  had  hitherto  served  for  the  transportation  of  goods, 
but  with  twenty-five  wheeled  vehicles  of  which  one  or  two  were 
stout  road  wagons,  the  whole  conveying  a  freight  of  near  thirty 
thousand  dollars  in  merchandise.  The  caravan  crossed  the  desert- 
plains  after  an  eventful  journey;  and  some  years  after  —  as  the 
early  adventurers  had  experienced  no  serious  molestations  from  the 
Indians,  —  a  wealthier  class  of  traders,  availed  themselves  of  the 


NEW  MEXICO  ERECTED  BY  CONGRESS  INTO  A  TERRITORY.  353 

opened  commerce  of  the  Prairies  and  finally  established  the  annual 
caravans  which  within  recent  years  have  departed  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Independence,  laden  with  most  valuable  freights  for 
the  markets  of  Santa  Fe,  Chihuahua,  and  even  the  distant  Fair  of 
San  Juan  de  los  Lagos. 

In  time,  however,  the  caravans,  the  period  of  their  passage,  and 
their  value,  became  known  to  the  savages  through  whose  lonely 
territory  they  passed,  and  so  many  cruel  attacks  were  made,  that  the 
United  States  resolved  to  protect  them  and  established  military  con- 
voys for  the  most  dangerous  part  of  the  route.  But  these  were  not 
always  of  sufficient  size,  nor  did  they  cover  the  road  adequately ; 
for  the  escort  which  accompanied  the  caravan  of  1829,  and  another 
composed  of  sixty  dragoons  under  Captain  Wharton  in  1834,  consti- 
tuted the  only  government  protection  until  the  year  1843,  when  large 
escorts  under  Captain  Cook  attended  two  different  caravans  as  far  as 
the  Arkansas  river.  Since  that  period,  the  war  has  slightly  interfered 
with  the  trade;  but  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  of  1848, 
having  given  New  Mexico  to  the  United  States,  and  a  territorial 
government  having  been  formed  for  it  during  the  first  session  of 
the  thirty-first  Congress,  a  new  and  progressive  era  is  about  to 
dawn  upon  the  whole  of  the  hitherto  lonely  waste  between  the 
western  settlements  of  Texas  and  the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 

By  an  act  approved  on  the  9th  of  September,  1850,  it  is  pro- 
vided :  "That  iill  that  portion  ot  the  territory  of  the  United  States 
bounded  as  follows  :  beginning  at  a  point  in  the  Colorado  river, 
where  the  boundary  line  with  the  Republic  of  Mexico  crosses  the 
same  ;  thence  eastwardly  with  the  said  boundary  line  to  the  Rio 
Grande  ;  thence  following  the  main  channel  of  said  river  to  the 
parallel  of  the  thirty-second  degree  of  north  latitude  ;  thence  east 
with  said  degree  to  its  intersection  with  the  one  hundred  and  third 
degree  of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich  ;  thence  north  with  said 
degree  of  longitude  to  the  parallel  of  the  thirty-eighth  degree  of  north 
latitude  ;  thence  west  with  said  parallel  to  the  summit  of  the  Sierra 
Madre;  thence  south  with  the  crest  of  said  mountains  to  tiie  thirty- 
seventh  parallel  of  north  latitude ;  thence  west  with  said  parallel  to 
its  intersection  with  the  boundary  line  of  the  State  of  California ; 
thence  with  said  boundary  line  to  the  place  of  beginning,  —  be  and 
the  same  is  hereby  erected  into  a  temporary  government,  by  the 
name  of  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico  :  Provided^  That  nothing 
in  this  act  contained  shall  be  construed  to  inhibit  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  from  dividing  said  Territory  into  two  or  more 
Territories,  in  such   manner  and   at  such    times  as  Congress  shall 


354  GEOLOGICAL    STRUCTURE    OF    NEW    MEXICO. 

deem  convenient  and  proper,  or  from  attaching  any  portion  thereof 
to  any  other  Territory  or  State:  ^nd  provided,  furtJier,  That, 
when  admitted  as  a  State,  the  said  Territory,  or  any  portion  of  the 
same,  shall  be  received  into  the  Union  with  or  without  slavery,  as 
their  constitution  may  prescribe  at  the  time  of  their  admission." 

Under  the  old  Spanish  and  Mexican  governments,  the  boundaries 
of  New  Mexico  were  exceedingly  indefinite;  but  this  act  forever 
fixes  the  territorial  limits,  and  also  settles  the  long  vexed  question 
of  the  boundary  of  Texas. 

"  New  Mexico,"  says  Dr.  Wislizenius,  in  his  excellent  memoir 
on  the  northern  part  of  the  Republic  ;  "is  a  very  mountainous 
country,  with  a  large  valley  in  the  middle,  running  from  north  to 
south,  and  formed  by  the  Rio  del  Norte  or  Rio  Grande.  The  valley 
is  generally  about  twenty  miles  wide,  and  bordered  on  the  east  and 
west  by  mountain  chains,  continuations  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
which  have  received  different  names,  such  as  La  Sierra  Blanca; 
Los  Organos,  and  Oscura,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  stream;  and 
the  Sierra  de  las  Grullas,  De  Acha,  and  De  los  Mimbres,  towards 
the  west.  The  height  of  these  mountains  south  of  Santa  Fe,  may  be 
averaged  between  six  and  eight  thousand  feet,  while  near  Santa  F6 
and  the  more  northern  regions,  some  snow  covered  peaks  are  seen 
rising  probably  ten  or  twelve  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
mountains  are  principally  composed  of  igneous  rocks,  as  granite, 
sienite,  diorite,  and  basalt.  On  the  higher  mountains  excellent  pine 
timber  grows ;  on  the  lower,  cedars  and  sometimes  oak,  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  principally  mezquite. 

The  main  artery  of  New  Mexico  is  the  Rio  del  Norte  or  Rio 
Grande,  the  longest  and  largest  river  ever  possessed  by  Mexico. 
Its  head  waters  were  explored  in  1807  by  Captain  Pike,  between 
37°  and  38°  north  latitude  ;  but  its  highest  sources  are  supposed  to 
be  about  two  degrees  further  north  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  near 
the  head  waters  of  the  Arkansas  and  the  Rio  Grande  or  Colorado  of 
the  west.  Following  a  general  southern  direction,  it  runs  through 
New  Mexico  —  where  its  principal  affluent  is  the  Rio  Chamas  from 
the  west  —  and  then  winds  its  way  in  a  south-eastern  direction, 
through  the  States  of  Chihuahua,  Coahuila,  Tamaulipas,  and  Texas, 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  25°  56'  north  latitude.  Its  tributaries  in 
in  the  latter  States  are  the  Pecos,  from  the  north ;  the  Conchos, 
Salado,  Alamo,  and  San  Juan,  from  the  south.  The  whole  course 
of  the  river,  in  a  straight  line,  would  be  near  twelve  hundred  miles; 
but  from  the  meandering  of  its  lower  half,  it  runs  at  least  about  two 
thousand  miles  from  the  region  of  eternal  snow  to  the  almost  tropical 


THE    RIO    GRANDE ITS    VALUE SOIL PRODUCTS.  355 

climate  of  the  Gulf.  The  elevation  of  the  stream  above  the  sea  at 
Alburquerque,  in  New  Mexico,  is  about  forty-eight  hundred  feet;  at 
El  Paso  del  Norte,  about  thirty-eight  hundred ;  and  at  Reynosa, 
— between  three  and  four  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth — about  one 
hundred  and  seventy  feet.  The  fall  of  its  water  between  Alburquer- 
que and  El  Paso,  appears  to  be  from  two  to  three  feet  in  a  mile,  and 
below  Reynosa,  one  foot  in  two  miles.  This  fall  of  the  river  is  sel- 
dom used  as  motive  power,  except  for  some  flour  mills,  which  are 
oftencr  worked  by  mules  than  water.  The  principal  advantage  at 
present  derived  from  it  is  for  agriculture,  by  a  well  conducted  system 
of  irrigation.  As  to  its  navigation,  it  is  very  doubtful  if  even 
canoes  could  be  used  m  J\''ew  Mexico,  except,  perhaps,  during  May 
and  June,  when  the  stream,  from  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  the 
mountains,  is  at  its  highest  stage.  It  is  entirely  too  shallow  and  in- 
terrupted by  too  many  sand  bars,  to  promise  any  thing  for  transpor- 
tation; yet,  on  the  southern  portion,  the  recent  exploration  by 
Captain  Sterling,  in  the  United  States  steamer  Major  Brown,  has 
proved  that  steamboats  may  ascend  for  a  distance  of  seven  hundred 
miles  between  the  Gulf  and  Laredo.  This  steamer,  however,  did 
not  draw  over  two  feet  of  water,  but  the  explorers  are  of  opinion  that 
by  spending  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  a  proper  improvement 
of  the  Rio  Grande  above  the  town  of  Mier,  boats  drawing  four  feet 
could  readily  ply  between  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  Laredo. 

The  soil  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in  New  Mexico,  is 
generally  sandy  and  appears  to  be  poor;  yet,  by  irrigation,  it  is 
made  to  produce  abundant  crops.  Though  agriculture  has  been 
hitherto  carried  on  in  a  very  primitive  way,  either  with  the  hoe 
alone,  or  with  a  very  rough  plough  made  entirely  of  wood,  never- 
theless the  inhabitants  raise  large  quantities  of  the  staple  productions 
—  such  as  Indian  corn,  wheat,  beans,  onions,  red  peppers,  and  some 
fruits.  The  most  fertile  part  of  the  valley,  begins  below  Santa  Fe 
along  the  river,  and  is  called  the  '  Rio  abajo,'  or  Country  down  the 
Stream.  In  that  region  it  is  not  uncommon  to  gather  two  annual 
harvests.  The  general  dryness  of  the  climate  and  aridity  of  the 
soil  will  always  confine  agriculture  to  the  valleys  of  water  courses, 
which  rarely  contain  running  water  during  the  whole  year.  But  on 
several  occasions  it  was  remarked,  in  the  high  table  land  from 
Santa  Fe  south,  that  at  a  certain  depth  layers  of  clay  are  found,  that 
may  form  reservoirs  for  the  sunken  water  courses  from  the  eastern 
and  western  mountain  chain,  and  consequently,  by  the  improved 
method  of  boring,  or  by  Artesian  wells,  they  might  easily  be  made 
to  yield  their  water  to  the  surface.     If  experiments  to  that  effect 


356  IRRIGATION CATTLE INDIANS MINES. 

should  prove  successful,  the  progress  of  agriculture  in  New  Mexico 
would  be  more  rapid,  and,  even  many  of  the  dreaded  'Jornadas' 
might  be  changed  from  waterless  deserts  into  cultivated  plains. 

The  present  system  of  irrigation  is  effected  by  darning  the 
streams,  and  throwing  the  water  into  larger  and  smaller  ditches  or 
acequias  surrounding  and  intersecting  the  whole  cultivated  land. 
The  inhabitants  of  towns  and  villages  locate  their  farms  together, 
and  allot  to  each  the  use  of  a  part  of  the  water  at  certain  definite 
periods.  These  common  fields  are  generally  left  without  fences,  for 
the  grazing  cattle  are  always  guarded  by  vaqueros  or  herdsmen. 
The  finest  cultivated  fields  are  generally  seen  on  the  haciendas,  or 
large  estates  belonging  to  the  rich  proprietors.  These  haciendas  are 
a  remnant  of  the  old  Spanish  system  by  which  large  tracts,  with  the 
appurtenances  of  Indian  inhabitants  or  serfs  were  granted  by  the 
crown  to  its  vassals.  The  great  number  of  human  beings  attached 
to  such  estates,  are,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  slaves ;  they  receive 
from  their  masters  only  food,  lodging,  and  raiment,  or,  perhaps  a 
mere  nominal  pay,  and  are  kept  constantly  in  debt  and  dependance 
on  their  landlords;  so  that  if  ancient  custom  and  natural  indolence 
did  not  compel  them  to  remain  permanently  with  their  hereditary 
masters,  the  enforcement  of  Mexican  laws  against  debtors  would  be 
sufficient  to  prolong  their  servitude  from  generation  to  generation. 

Besides  agriculture,  the  New  Mexicans  pay  a  great  deal  of  at- 
tention to  the  raising  of  cattle.  Their  stock  is  all  of  a  small  size, 
raised  from  unimproved  or  exhausted  breeds ;  but  it  increases  ra- 
pidly, and  as  no  stable  feeding  is  needed  in  winter,  it  exacts  but 
little  care  from  its  owners.  There  are  large  tracts  of  land  in  New 
Mexico,  either  too  mountainous  or  too  distant  from  water  to  be  cul- 
tivated, which,  nevertheless,  afford  excellent  pasturage  for  innumer- 
able herds  during  the  whole  year;  but,  unfortunately,  here  as  well 
as  in  the  State  of  Chihuahua,  cattle  raising  has  been  crippled  by  the 
incursions  of  hostile  Indians,  who  consider  themselves  'secret  part- 
ners' in  the  business,  and  annually  carry  off  their  share  from  the 
unprotected  vaqueros. 

A  third  much  neglected  branch  of  industry  in  New  Mexico,  is 
that  of  mining.  Numerous  deserted  mining  places  in  this  region 
prove  that  it  was  pursued  with  much  greater  zeal  in  Spanish  times 
than  at  present.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  actual  want 
of  capital  and  knowledge  of  mining,  but,  especially,  by  the  unsettled 
state  of  the  country  and  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  its  rulers.  The 
mountainous  parts  of  New  Mexico  are  considered  extremely  rich  in 
gold,  copper,  iron,  and  some  silver.     Gold  seems  to  be  found  to  a 


GOLD SILVER COPPER IRON GYPSUM SALT.  357 

Inrge  extent  in  all  the  mountains  near  Santa  Fe ;  south  of  it,  at  a 
distance  of  about  one  hundred  miles  as  far  as  "Gran  Quivara,"  and 
north  for  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  up  to  the  river  Sangre 
de  Christo.  Throughout  the  whole  of  this  region  gold  dust  has  been 
abundantly  found  by  the  poorer  classes  of  Mexicans,  who  occupy 
themselves  with  washing  it  from  the  mountain  streams.  At  present 
the  Old  and  New  Placeres,  or  places  where  gold  is  obtained  near 
Santa  Fe,  have  attracted  most  attention,  and  not  only  gold  washes 
but  gold  mines,  also,  are  worked  there.  Yet  they  are  probably  the 
only  gold  mines  at  present  wrought  in  the  territory.  The  wash  gold 
when  examined  was  found  to  contain: 

Native  Gold, 92.5 

Silver,      ......  3.5 

Iron  and  Silex,     .  .          .  ...       4.0 


100.0;  — 
while  the  total  annual  production  of  both  placeres  seems  to  have 
varied  considerably; — in  some  years  it  was  estimated  at  from  thirty 
to  forty  thousand  dollars,  in  others  from  sixty  to  eighty  thousand, 
and  in  latter  years,  it  is  reputed  to  have  ascended  to  even  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand. 

Several  rich  silver  mines  were,  in  Spanish  times,  worked  at  Avo, 
at  Cerillos,  and  in  the  Nambe  mountains,  but  none  are  in  operation 
at  present.  Copper  is  found  in  abundance  throughout  the  country, 
but  principally  at  Las  Tijeras,  Jemas,  Abiquia,  and  Gudalupita  de 
Mora,  but  until  a  recent  period  only  one  copper  mine  was  wrought 
south  of  the  placeres.  Iron,  though  also  existing  in  very  large  quan- 
tities, has  been  entirely  overlooked.  Coal  is  found  in  different  lo- 
calities —  as  in  the  Raton  mountains  ;  in  the  vicinity  of  the  village 
of  Jimez,  south-west  of  Santa  Fe;  and  in  spots  south  of  {he placeres. 
Gypsum,  common  and  selenite,  are  discovered  abundantly,  and  it  is 
said  that  most  extensive  layers  exist  in  the  mountains  near  Algodon, 
on  the  Rio  Grande,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  celebrated  Salinas. 
It  is  used  as  common  lime  for  white- washing,  while  the  crystalline  or 
selenite  is  employed  instead  of  window  glass.  About  one  hundred 
miles,  south  south-east  of  Santa  Fe,  on  the  high  table  land  between 
the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos,  are  some  extensive  salinas  or  salt  lakes, 
from  which  all  the  salt  used  in  New  Mexico  is  procured.  Large 
caravans  from  Santa  Fe  visit  this  place  every  year  during  the  dry 
season,  and  return  heavily  laden*  with  the  precious  deposits.  They 
either  sell  it  for  one  and  sometimes  two  dollars  per  bushel,  or  ex- 
change a  bushel  of  salt  for  a  bushel  of  Indian  corn. 
.2t 


358 


CLIMATE l'L'£BLO     INDIANS. 


The  climate  of  New  Mexico  differs  of  course  in  the  higher 
mountainous  parts  from  the  lower  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande ;  but, 
generally,  it  is  temperate,  constant  and  healthy.  The  summer  heat 
in  the  valley  of  the  river  sometimes  rises  to  near  100°  Farenheit; 
yet  the  nights  are  always  cool,  pleasant,  and  refreshing.  The 
winters  are^longer  and  severer  than  in  Chihuahua,  for  the  higher 
mountains  are  always  covered. with  snow,  while  ice  and  snow  are 
common  in  Santa  F6,  though  the  Rio  Grande  is  never  sufficiently 
frozen  to  admit  the  passage  of  horses  and  vehicles.  The  sky  is 
generally  clear  and  the  atmosphere  dry.  Between  July  and  October 
rain  falls ;  but  the  wet  season  is  not  so  constant  or  regular  as  in  the 
Southern  States  of  the  Mexican  Republic.  Disease  seems  to  be 
very  little  known  except  in  the  form  of  inflammations  and  typhoidal 
fevers  during  the  winter. 


-.--^^: 


INDIAN    PUEBLO,    OR   VILLAGE. 


Between  the  Indians  and  the  whites,  —  except  perhaps  on  the 
naciendas  —  there  still  continues  the  same  old  rancorous  feeling 
which  generated  the  general  insurrection  narrated  in  the  historical 
part  of  this  work.  The  Pueblo  Indians  live  always  isolated  in 
their  villages,  cultivate  the  soil,  raise  some  stock,  and  are  generally 
poor,  frugal,  and  sober.  These  various  tribes,  of  which  a  large  num- 
oer  still  exist,  are  reduced  to  probably  about  seven  thousand  souls. 


WILD    INDIANS    ENUMERATED.  359 

They  speak  different  dialects  and  sometimes  broken  Spanish.  For 
the  government  of  their  communities  they  select  a  Cacique  and  a 
council,  and  in  war  are  led  by  a  Capitan.  In  religious  rites  they 
mingle  Catholicism  and  Paganism.  Their  villages  are  very  regu- 
larly built;  though  sometimes,  there  is  but  one  large  house  of  sev- 
eral stories,  with  a  vast  number  of  small  rooms,  in  which  all  the 
inhabitants  of  \he  puehlo  are  quartered  !  Instead  of  doors  in  front, 
traps  are  made  on  the  roofs  of  their  dwellings  to  which  they  ascend 
by  a  ladder  that  is  withdrawn  during  the  night  so  as  to  secure  them 
from  surprise  or  attack.  Their  dress  consists  of  moccasins,  short 
breeches  and  a  woollen  jacket  or  blanket;  their  black  hair  is  usually 
worn  long,  while  bows  and  arrows  together  with  a  lance  and  some- 
times a  gun  compose  their  weapons.  ^ 

The  late  Governor,  Charles  Bent,  in  a  report  to  the  United  States 
Government  from  Santa  Fe  in  1846,  presents  the  following  state- 
ment of  the  tribes  and  numbers  of  the  Wild  Indians,  who  reside 
or  roam  in  the  regions  which  were  then  supposed  to  be  comprised 
in  New  Mexico.  Bent's  perfect  familiarity  with  a  district  in  which 
he  had  so  long  dwelt  or  traded,  renders  his  enumeration  of  these 
savages  an  important  historical  fact  in  the  history  of  the  newly  ac- 
quired Territory. 

Apaches  or  Jicarillas,  100  lodges  comprising  500  souls. 

Apaches  proper,         800  or  900       "  "  5,500  " 

Utahs,  Grande  Unita  rivers,  600       "  "  3,000  " 

Utahs,  Southern,                    200       "  "  1,400  " 

Navajos,                                1,000  families  "  7,000  •' 

Moques,                                   350       "  "  2,450  " 

Comanches,                          2,500  lodges  "  12,000  " 

Cayugas,                                  400       "  "  2,000  " 

Cheyennes,                             300       "  "  1,500  " 

Arapahoes,                              400       "  "  1,600  " 


Total,      .         .         .         .         .     36,950     " 

According  to  a  report  made  in  October,  1849,  by  Mr.  James  S. 
Calhoun,  Indian  Agent  at  Santa  Fe,  the  following  summary  of  the 
Pueblos^  and  Pueblo  Indians  of  New  Mexico,  is  based  on  a  census 

'  We  have  used  the  full  account  given  by  Dr.  Wislizenius,  with  but  slight  altera- 
tions of  his  language,  because  it  is  the  most  complete,  consistent  and  satisfactory  that 
we  have  encountered  in  our  researches.  We  could  neither  improve  its  method  or 
condense  its  matter.  He  is  a  close  observer  ;  an  accurate  thinker  ;  an  industrioua 
traveller,  and  relates  always  from  his  personal  observation 


360  NUMBKR    OF    PUEBLO    INDIANS CENSUS. 

ordered  by  the  legislature  of  New  Mexico,  convened  in  December, 
1847;  but  it  includes  only  individuals  five  years  of  age  and  upwards. 

PUEBLOS    AND    PUEBLO    INDIANS    OF    NEW    MEXICO. 

Pueblo  Indians 
Counties.  Pueblos.  Q^er   5  years. 

County  of  Taos,  .      Taos,  Picoris         .          .         .283 

"         Rio  Arriva,        San  Juan,  Santa  Clara  .  .     500 

„,        {  San  Ildefonso,  Namba,  Po-  )      r-n^ 
u         Santa  Fe,       <       •  -r.  }     o\)0 

odiiui  1  c,       ^       joaque,  Tezuque,  ) 

C  Cochiti,     Santo    Domingo,  ^ 
"         Santa  Anna,  }  San  F6lip6,  Santa  Anna,  Zia,  >  1,918 

(  Jemez,  ) 

"         Bernalillo,         Sandia,  Gleta,       .         .         .     833 
"         Valencia,  Laguna,  Acoma,  Zunia,  1,800 

Opposite  El  Paso,  Socoro,  Tslettas,    .         .         .     600 

Total  of  Pueblos  21.        Total  of  Pueblo  Indians       6,524 

These  calculations  will  serve  to  aid  in  the  estimates  of  present 
population,  for  no  accurate  census  has  been  prepared  officially  for 
many  years. 

In  1793,  according  to  an  enumeration  then  made,  the  ivhole 
population  amounted  to  30,953: — in  1833  it  is  estimated,  in  the 
statistics  of  Galvan's  Calendar,  at  52,300  individuals,  who  were 
divided  by  Miihlenpfordt  and  Dr.  Wislizenius  into  ^'^  pure  Spanish 
blood,  -jV  Creoles,  /^  Mestizos,  and  |§  Pueblo  Indians.  These 
calculations,  according  to  the  above  census  of  Pueblo  Indians, 
would  make  the  whole  present  population  not  more  than  thirteen 
or  fourteen  thousand,  which  is  obviously  incorrect  unless  the  census 
of  1847  was  most  inaccurately  made. 

In  a  letter  from  the  Hon.  Hugh  N.  Smith,  delegate  from  New 
Mexico,  addressed  to  the  National  Intelligencer,  Washington, 
and  published  on  the  25th  of  June,  1850,  he  desires  to  correct  the 
mistakes  which  have  been  made  in  regard  to  the  number  and  char- 
acter of  the  inhabitants  of  New  Mexico.  The  number,  he  says, 
has  been  variously  stated  in  the  Congressional  debates  at  from  ten 
to  seventy  thousand;  and  generally  one  half^  and  sometimes  all  of 
them,  are  said  to  be  Indians.  "This  is  a  great  error,"  continues 
the  delegate,  "  we  have  a  population  of  at  least  ninety  thousand, 
of  whom  from  ten  to  twelve  thousand  only  are  Pueblo  Indians,  and 
we  do  not  estimate  in  our  population  any  other  kind  of  Indians  ex- 
cept Pueblos.  They  are  a  quiet,  inoffensive,  honest,  and  indus- 
trious people  ;  they  own  the  best  farming  lands  in  the  Territory,  and 


PHOXlMATi:    PR K SENT    POPULATION.  361 

are  engaged  entirely  m  agricultural  pursuits,  and,  as  tax-paying  In- 
dians, v.'ould  be  entitled  to  the  privileges  of  citizens,  and  of  the 
elective  franchise  in  Texas. 

"  The  census  taken  in  New  Mexico  the  year  before  the  entrance 
of  General  Kearney  into  that  Territory,  showed  the  population  to  be 
one  hundred  thousand  and  two  or  three  hundred  over.  This  may 
not  have  been  taken  with  great  accuracy,  but  the  best  informed  per- 
sons, and  those  who  have  lived  there  longest  agree  with  me  that  we 
have  not  less  than  ninety  thousand.  Dr.  Wislizenius,  who  is  gene- 
rally correct  in  his  accounts  of  travel,  and  who  is  relied  upon  as  good 
authority,  in  his  statistics  of  that  country,  is  certainly  mistaken  in 
saying  that  ten-twentieths,  or  one-half  of  the  population,  are  Pueblo 
Indians.  I  have  travelled  through  the  settled  parts  of  that  country 
two  or  three  times  a  year  for  the  last  three  years,  and  I  know  that 
not  a  fifth,  or  even  one-sixth  are  Indians. 

"  There  are  in  New  Mexico  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  resi- 
dent America}!  voters,  emigrants  from  the  different  States,  principally 
from  the  State  of  Missouri ;  the  rest  of  the  population  is  Mexican 
and  Spanish." 

Upon  these  estimates  and  calculations  it  would  perhaps  be  fair,  in 
arriving  at  a  proximate  enumeration  of  inhabitants,  to  give  the  fol- 
lowing ratios  : — 

Wild  Indians,  according  to  Governor  Charles  Bent,       .  36,950 

Pueblo  Indians,  according  to  enumeration,             .          .  6,524 

White  Creoles,  according  to  Dr.  Gregg,     .          .          .  1,000 

Mestizos,                      "              "              "...  59,000 

Americans,  according  to  Hon.  Hugh  N.  Smith,      .         .  1,500 


104,974 
Deduct  from  this  for  Wild  Indians,      ....     36,950 


68,024 
Deduct  from  this  for  Pueblo  Indians,  .,        .         .       6,524 


Proximate  Total  of  Pure  Whites  and  Mixed  Races,  ^    61,500 

The  more  civilized  inhabitants  of  New  Mexico  resemble  their  pa- 
rent stock  in  character  and  manners,  save  that  they  are  somewhat 
tinctured  with  the  habits  of  the  Indian  race,  whose  blood  is  mingled 

•There  are  no  negroes  in  New  Mexico,. and  consequently  neither  mulattos  nor 
zambos.  The  fatal  epidemic  fever  of  a  typhoid  character  that  ravaged  the  whole  pro- 
vince from  1S37  to  1839,  and  the  small  pox  in  1840,  carried  off  nearly  ten  percent;  of 
the  population. 


362      CHARACTER  OF  PEOPLE  AND  GOVERNMENT SANTA    Ffi. 

more  or  less  in  the  veins  of  all  classes.  The  men  are  homely,  the 
women  pretty,  and  while  the  former  are  generally  condemned  for 
their  indolence,  insincerity  and  treacherousness,  the  latter  are  praised 
by  all  travellers  for  their  frank,  affectionate  and  gentle  demeanor. 
Very  little  was  ever  done  for  education  in  this  remote  Territory, 
which  was  almost  cut-off  from  the  civilizing  influences  of  the  rest  of 
the  world.  Its  governors, — either  sent  by  the  central  authorities  of  the 
Mexican  Republic,  or  chosen  by  the  people  themselves, — were  often 
overthrown  by  bloody  revolutions ;  but,  while  in  power,  they  used 
their  offices  as  a  prolific  means  of  enriching  themselves.  Their  in- 
tercourse with  strangers  from  the  north,  and  their  facilities  in  fraud- 
ulently collecting  or  compromising  duties  upon  the  trade  of  the 
caravans,  were  constantly  taken  advantage  of  by  the  rapacious 
chiefs ;  nor  could  the  national  authorities  attempt  to  control  them, 
for  the  distance  of  Santa  F6  from  the  capital  always  made  the  loyalty 
of  New  Mexico  loose  and  insecure.  ^  The  governors,  judiciary, 
and  clergy  of  the  Territory,  naturally  fostered  this  feeling  among 
the  people,  and  in  many  instances  it  was  beneficial  to  the  north  of 
the  Republic,  especially  in  opposing  the  establishment  of  the  tobacco 
monopoly  and  in  resisting  the  introduction  of  the  copper  currency 
which  elsewhere  caused  so  much  distress  and  ruin. 

The  principal  town  in  New  Mexico  is  Santa  F6,  or,  as  it  is  often 
written  by  Spaniards  and  Mexicans,  Santa  F6  de  San  Francisco. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  Spanish  settlements  in  the  north,  and  lies  at 
an  elevation  of  7047  feet  above  the  sea,  in  35°  41'  6",  north  latitude, 
and  106°  2'  30",  longitude  west  from  Greenwich,  according  to  the 
observations  of  Lieutenant  Colonel  Emory  of  the  United  States 
Topographical  Engineers,  and  of  Doctors  Gregg  and  Wislizenius. 
The  town  is  situated  in  a  wide  plain  surrounded  by  mountains, 
about  fifteen  miles  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte.  Immediately 
-west  of  the  town  a  snow-capped  mountain  rises  up  to  a  lofty  height, 
and  a  beautiful  stream  of  small  mill  power  size,  ripples  down  its 
sides  and  joins  the  river  about  twenty  miles  to  the  south-westward. 

Santa  Fe  is  an  irregular,  scattered  town,  built  of  adobes  or  sun 
dried  bricks,  while  most  of  its  streets  are  common  highways  tra- 
versing settlements  interspersed  with  extensive  cornfields.  The 
only  attempt  at  any  thing  like  architectural  compactness  and  preci- 
sion, says  Dr.  Gregg,  consists  in  four  tiers  of  buildings,  whose  fronts 
are  shaded  with  a  fringe  of  rude  portales  or  corridors.  They  stand 
around  the  public  square,  and  comprise  the  Palacio  or  Governor's 

'  See  Gregg's  Commerce  of  the  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  p.  113. 


ALBURQUERQUE VALLEY  OF  TAOS. 


363 


house,  the  custom  house,  barracks,  calabozo,  casa  consistorial,  the 
military  chapel,  besides  several  private  residences,  as  well  as  most 
of  the  shops  of  the  American  traders. 


PARROaUIA    DE     SANTA    FE. 

Alburquerque  is  a  town  as  large  as  Santa  Fe,  stretched  for 
several  miles  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  if  not  a 
handsomer,  is  at  least  not  a  worse  looking  place  than  the  capital. 

The  population  of  New  Mexico,  owing  to  the  insecure  tenure  of 
life  on  a  frontier  which  is  constantly  liable  to  the  ravages  of  wild 
Indians,  has  always  clustered  together  in  towns  and  villages.  These 
are  scattered  along  the  valley  of  the  rivers,  and  are  commonly  known 
as  the  "  rio  arriva"  and  "  rio  abajo"  or  "  up  stream"  and  "  down 
stream"  settlements.  Even  individual  ranchos  and  haciendas  serve 
as  the  nucleii  of  large  neighborhoods,  and  finally  become  important 
villages.  All  the  principal  locations  of  this  character  lie  in  the  val- 
ley between  one  hundred  miles  north  and  one  hundred  and  forty 
south  of  the  capital.  The  most  important  of  these  next  to  the  capital, 
is  El  Valle  de  Taos,, whose  name  is  derived  from  the  Taosa 
tribe,  a  remnant  of  which  still  forms  a  Pueblo  in  the  north  of  the 
district.  No  part  of  New  Mexico  equals  this  spot  in  productiveness ; 
and  although  the  bottom  lands  of  the  valleys  where  irrigation  may  be 
easily  obtained  have  often  produced  over  a  hundred  fold,  yet  the 


364 


STATISTICS  OF  SANTA  FE  TRADE,  ETC. 


uplands  throughout  all  these  elevated  plains  about  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, must,  in  all  probability,  remain  sterile  in  consequence  of  the 
extraordinary  dryness  of  the  atmosphere.  Indeed,  New  Mexico 
possesses  but  few  of  those  natural  advantages  which  are  necessary 
to  a  rapid  progress  of  civilization.  It  is  a  region  without  a  single 
communication  by  water  with  any  other  part  of  the  world,  and  is 
imprisoned  by  chains  of  mountains  extending  for  more  than  five  hun- 
dred miles,  except  in  the  direction  of  Chihuahua  from  which,  how- 
ever, its  settlements  are  separated  by  a  dreary  desert  of  nearly  two 
hundred  miles.  ^ 

"  Some  genera]  statistics  of  the  Santa  F6  trade,"  says  Dr.  Gregg, 
"  may  prove  not  wholly  without  interest  to  the  mercantile  reader. 
With  this  view  I  have  prepared  the  following  table  of  the  probable 
amount  of  merchandise  invested  in  the  Santa  Fe  trade,  from  1822  to 
1843  inclusive,  and  about  the  ])ortion  of  the  same  transferred  to  the 
Southern  markets  (chiefly  Chihuahua)  during  the  same  period  ;  to- 
gether with  the  approximate  number  of  wagons,  men  and  proprietors 
engaged  each  year : 


Years. 

Mdse.      Igons. 

Men. 

Prop' 
ietors 

Train  to 
Chihuahua 

Remarks. 

1823 

15,000; 

70 

60 

Pack-animals  only  used. 

1823 

12,000 

50 

30 

do.                    do. 

1824 

■35,000 

20 

100 

80 

3,000 

do.  and  wagons. 

1825 

65,000 

37 

130 

90 

5,000         do.                do. 

1826 

90,000 

60 

100 

70 

7,000  Wagons  only  henceforth. 

1827 

85,000 

55 

90 

50 

8,000 

1828 

150,000 

100 

200 

80 

20,000  Three  men  killed,  beino;  the  first. 

1829 

60,000 

30 

50 

20 

5,000jlst  U.  S.  Escort— one  trader  killed. 

1830 

120,000 

70 

140 

60 

20,000|rirst  oxen  used  by  traders. 

1831 

250,000 

130 

320 

80 

80,000T\vo  men  killed. 

1832 

140,000 

70 

150 

40 

50,000  (  Party  defeated  on  Canadian  2  men 

1833 

180,000 

105 

185 

60 

80,000  (  killed,  3  perished. 

1834 

150,000 

80 

160 

50 

70,000l2d  U.  S.  Escort 

1835 

140,000 

75 

140 

40 

70,000 

1836 

130,000 

70 

135 

35 

60,000 

1837 

150,000 

80 

160 

35 

80,000 

1838 

90,000 

50 

100 

20 

40,000| 

1839 

250,000 

130 

250 

40 

100 ,0001  Arkansas  Expedition. 

1840 

50,000 

30 

60 

5 

10,000  Chihuahua  Expedition. 

1841 

150,000 

60 

100 

12 

80,000 

Texan  Santa  Fe  Expedition. 

1842 

160,000 

70 

120 

15 

90,000 

1843 

450,000 

230 

350 

30 

300,000l3d  U.  S.  Escort— Ports  closed. "  « 

The  following  valuable  geographical  information  is  derived  froi . 
a  statement  published  by  Major  James  Henry  Carleton,  Uniteu 
States  Army,  in  the  National  Intelligencer,  and  is  founded  on  the 
measurements  made  by  Captain  Alexander  B.  Dyer,  with  a  viameter, 
during  the  march  of  General  Kearney  against  New  Mexico. 


'  See  Gregg;,  vol.  i.,  chapter  vii. 


'Gregg,  vol.  li.,  p.  160. 


RARY  FROM  FORT  LEAVENWORTH. 


365 


FORT  LEAVENWORTH  TO  EL  PASO,  VIA 
SANTA  FE. 


Points. 

Distance  from 

Distance  from 

place  to  place. 

Fort  Leavecworth 

Fort  Leavenworth  to  — 

Miles. 

.  Miles. 

Upper  Ferry,  Kansas  river. 

.     35 

35 

Willow  Spring, 

17 

52 

110  Creek,       . 

.     24 

76 

Beaver  Creek, 

12 

88 

Dragoon  Creek, 

.      8 

96 

Bluff  Creek, 

13 

109 

Council  Grove, 

.     12 

121 

Diamond  Spring, 

15 

136 

Lost  Spring, 

.     14 

150 

Cotton  Wood, 

15 

165 

Main  Turkey  Creek, 

.     18 

183 

Little  Arkansas, 

26 

209 

Big  Cow  Creek, 

.     21 

230 

Walnut  Creek, 

25 

255 

Pawnee  Fork, 

.     25 

280 

Cow  Creek, 

12 

292 

Fort  Mann, 

.     55 

347 

Crossing  of  Arkansas, 

26 

373 

Sand  Creek, 

.     50 

423 

Lower  Spring  on  Cimerone, 

8 

431 

Middle  Spring, 

.     34 

465 

Crossing  of  Cimerone, 

27 

492 

Cold  Spring, 

.     18 

510 

Cedar  Spring, 

14 

524 

McNee's  Creek, 

.     10 

534 

Cotton  Wood, 

10 

544 

Rabbit-ear  Spring, 

.     14 

558 

Whetstone, 

24 

582 

Point-of-Rocks, 

.     15 

597 

Red  River, 

.         21 

618 

Ocate,               .         .         .         . 

.       5 

623 

Wagon  Mound, 

20 

643 

Rock  Creek, 

.     16 

659 

Mora  River, 

8 

667 

Las  Vegas, 

.     19 

686 

St.  Miguel, 

23 

709 

Old  Peco  Church,    . 

.     24 

733 

2u 

366 


TO    SANTA    FE    AND    EL    PASO. 


Distance  from 
place  to  place. 

Distance  from 
Fort  Leavenworth, 

Miles. 

Miles. 

24 

757 

.     65 

822 

.     45 

887 

18 

905 

Points. 

Old  Pecos  Church  to — 
Santa  F6, 
Alburquerque, 
Peralto  (The  Oteros), 
LaJoya,  .... 

Socorro,       .... 
Ford  of  Del  Norte,  above  the  ruins  of 

Valverde,^  .... 

Fra  Christoval,  entrance  of  Jornada 

de  los  Muertos, 
Dona  Anna  (Mexican  town),     . 
Grove  on  river,     .... 
Brazito,  ..... 

El  Paso, 

Note. — The  boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and  Mex- 
ico, leaves  the  Del  Norte  a  few  miles  above  the  town  of  EI  Paso, 
runninof  west  towards  the  Gila. 


25 


930 


16 

946 

95 

1,041 

15 

1,056 

16 

1,072 

32 

1,104 

'  The  roads  by  Gen.  Kearney's  and  by  Brevet  Lieut.  Col.  Cooke's  routes  leave  the 
Rio  Grande  for  California  some  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  below  the  ford  at  Valverde  ; 
the  former  just  opposite,  and  the  latter  below  a  point  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
known  as  San  Die^o. 


THE    STATE    OF    CALIFORNIA, 


TITLE   TO  THE    REGION MISSIONARY    SETTLEMENT,   ITS   PURPOSES 

CHARACTER  OF   CALIFORNIA SECULARIZATION    OF  MISSIONS 

POPULATION      IN      MISSIONS AGRICULTURAL      STATISTICS ■ 

CATTLE HIDES TALLOW HERDSMEN TRADE THE   WAR 

CONDITION    OF     CALIFORNIA    AT     ITS     CLOSE PROGRESS     OF 

SETTLEMENT  AND  LAW CONSTITUTION   ADOPTED ADMISSION 

AS     A     STATE FORMER     BOUNDARIES THE     GREAT     BASIN 

UTAH GREAT  SALT  LAKE  PYRAMID  LAKE RIVERS PRE- 
SENT STATE  BCUNDARIES AREA GEOGRAPHY SACRAMEN- 
TO    SAN    JOAQUIN SHASTL     PEAK. 

The  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  confirmed  the  title  to  Upper 
California  which  the  United  States  had  gained  by  war.  Although 
the  geographical  position  of  that  region,  the  security  of  its  harbors, 
and  the  supposed  value  of  its  soil,  had  attracted  the  attention  of 
our  people  at  an  early  day,  it  was  not  imagined,  at  the  period 
of  the  cession,  that  the  new  territory  would  so  soon  become  the 
nucleus  of  the  first  Anglo-Saxon  empire  on  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific.  Its  rapid  development  was  owing  rather  to  circumstances 
of  an  extraordinary  character,  than  to  the  commercial  and  pro- 
gressive spirit  of  our  citizens  ;  but  the  national  energy  which  is 
always  alive  to  individual  interests,  was  never  more  completely 
illustrated  than  by  the  alacrity  with  which  all  classes  rushed  to  the 
new  scenes  of  labor,  and  turned  to  gold  the  soils  that  Indians  and 
Mexicans  had  trodden  for  centuries  as  worthless  sand. 

Lower  California  was  discovered,  visited,  and  partly  settled  by  the 
Spanish  adventurers  soon  after  the  Mexican  conquest,  and  although 
the  coasts  of  Upper  California  had  been  explored  in  1542,  it  was 
not  until  the  eighteenth  century  that  the  "  spiritual  conquest"  of 
that  distant  region  was  undertaken  by  the  Roman  clergy,  under 
whose  directions  the  missions  were  founded  upon  a  "pious  fund," 
created  by  the  zealous  Catholics  of  Mexico.  At  that  time  it  was 
supposed  that  the  civilizing  influences  of  religion  would  not  only  win 
thousands  of  savages  to  the  worship  of  God,  but  that  by  blending 
agriculture  and  trade  under  the  tutelage  of  the  church,  tlie  Indians 


368    CHARACTER  OF  CALIFORNIA SECULARIZATION  OF  MISSION'S. 

mio-ht  be  rendered  valuable  subjects  of  the  Spanish  crown.  The 
government  well  knew  that  the  Spaniards  were  neither  sufficiently 
numerous  nor  adventurous  in  Mexico  to  throw  large  bodies  of  hardy 
men  into  so  remote  a  province  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  it 
was,  therefore,  imagined  that  the  actual  native  population  of  the 
district  might  be  tamed  by  religion  to  supply  the  place  of  Christian 
immigration. 

All  the  explorers  who  visited  Upper  California  reported  favorably 
on  the  character  of  the  countr}-.  It  was  known  to  possess  induce- 
ments to  a  profitable  trade.  The  golden  east  opened  its  gates  in 
front  of  it ;  and  the  country  was  supposed  to  contain  valuable  metal- 
lic deposits  which  might  be  slowly  and  surely  developed.  But  the 
labors  of  the  clergy  did  not  respond  to  the  expectations  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  priests  were  contented  with  present  comfort  rather 
than  anxious  for  future  success.  The  mass  of  the  Indians  were 
brouo-ht  into  a  state  of  comparative  vassalage,  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  chapter  on  the  church  of  Mexico,  and  all  the  most  valuable  or 
accessible  lands  were  rapidly  absorbed,  to  the  exclusion  of  hardy, 
persevering,  and  thrifty  white  men.  ^ 

Althousrh  the  clerg>-  were  the  virtual  proprietors  of  the  agri- 
cultural and  cattle  raising  districts,  the  viceroyal  government  con- 
trived to  retain  a  loose  and  limited  control  over  this  district,  until 
the  period  of  the  revolution.  In  1824,  on  the  adoption  of  the  fed- 
eral constitution,  as  the  Californias  did  not  possess  sufficient  popu- 
lation to  become  States  of  the  federation,  they  were  erected  into 
Territories,  with  a  right  to  send  a  member  to  the  general  congress, 
who,  though  suffered  to  participate  in  debate,  was  not  allowed  to 
vote  in  its  decisions.  As  Territories  they  were  under  the  govern- 
ment of  an  agent  styled  the  Commanda^it-General,  whose  powers 
were  verv  extensive. 

After  the  revolution  the  first  progressive  step  was  made  by  the 
secularization  of  the  missions.  In  1833,  under  the  vigorous  lead  of 
Gomez  Farias,  the  salaries  of  the  monks  were  suspended,  the  Indians 
were  released  from  servitude,  the  pious  fund  was  confiscated,  the 
division  of  property  among  natives  and  settlers  decreed,  and  an  ex- 
tensive plan  proposed  to  fill  the  country  by  immigration.  These 
blows  fell  heavily  upon  the  monastic  farmers  and  herdsmen  of  those 
IradintT  churches.  The  missions  were  speedily  deserted,  their  edi- 
fices  and  establishments  decayed,  and,  near  the  period  of  their  close, 
the  whole  result  of  this  abortive  ecclesiastical  civilization,  was  sum- 
med up  in  the  paltry  numbers  exhibited  in  the  following  statement: 

'  See  vol.  ii.,  page  137. 


POPULATION  IN  MISSIONS AGRICULTURAL   STATISTICS.  369 

MISSIONS  AND  THEIR  POPULATION  IN  UPPER  CALIFORNIA  IN  1831. 

Names  of  the  Jiirisriimions,  Missions,  people  of  atj,  classes  and  aoes. 

a-id  Tnuns.  .M<n.  Women.       Bovs.  Girls.  Tolal. 

r Presidio  of  S.  Francisco 124  85  89  73  371 

Town  of  San  Jose  de  Guadalupe   ...  166  145  103  110  524 

xVlission  of  S.  Francisco  Solano     ...  285  242  88  90  705 

p  C  J      id.        of  S.  Rafael 406  410  105  106  1027 

id.         of  S.  Francisco 146  65  13  13  237 

id.         of  Santa  Clara 752  491  68  60  1371 

id.         of  S.  Jose 823  659  100  145  1727 

id.         of  Santa  Cruz 222  94  30  20  366 

r Presidio  of  Monteret 311  190  110  97  708 

Village  of  Branciforte 52  34  27  17  130 

Mission  of  S.  Juan  Bautista     ....  480  351  85  7]  987 

id.        of  S.  Carlos 102  79  34  21  236 

id.         of  Na.  sa.  de  la  Soledad       .     .  210  81  23  20  334 

id.         of  S.  Antonio 394  209  51  17  671 

id.        of  S.  Miguel 349  292  46  61  748 

=i       t     'd-        of  S.  Luis  Obispo 211  103  8  7  329 

Presidio  of  Sta.  Barbara      ....  167  120  162  164  613 

Mission    of  La  Purissima 151  218  47  34  450 

id.         of  Sta.  Ines 142  136  82  96  456 

id.         of  Sta.  Barbara 374  267  51  70  762 

id.         of  Buenaventura 383  283  66  59  791 

id.         of  S.  Fernando 249  226  177  181  833 

l^Tou-n  of  laReynadelos  Angelos      .     .  552  421  213  202  1388 

Presidio  of  S.  Diego 295") 

Mission  of  S.  Gabriel 574 

id.         of  S.  Juan  Capistrano      .     .     .  464 

id.         of  S.  Luis  Key 11.38  J 

id.        of  S.  DieM 750  520  162  146  1575 


-  a 
(>  < 


1911        683        621       5686 


» Totals  10,272      7632      2623      2498  23,025 

Agriculture  had  always  been  most  carelessly  conducted.  The 
implements  used  in  the  fields  were  nearly  the  same  as  those  intro- 
duced by  the  earliest  settlers.  The  mills  were  few  and  primitive  ; 
and  although  the  same  extent  of  ground  yielded  nearly  three  times 
as  much  wheat  as  in  England,  and  returned  corn  at  the  rate  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  fold,  yet  nothing  was  cultivated  that  was  not  abso- 
lutely needed  for  the  maintenance  of  the  missions  and  their  imme- 
diate neighborhoods.  There  was  no  commerce  to  carrj'  off  the 
excess  of  production,  and  no  enterprise  to  create  a  surplus  for  the 
purposes  of  trade. 

At  this  epoch  the  whole  cereal  production  of  Upper  California  did 
not  exceed  — 

63,000  bushels  of  wheat. 
28,000       "       of  corn. 
4,200       "       of  frijoles  or  brown  beans. 
2,800       "       of  garabanzos  or  peas. 
18,500       "       barley. 
The  Californians,  of  that  period,  seem  however,  to  have  particu- 
larly delighted  in  the  care  of  cattle.     The  idle,  roving  life  of  herds- 

»  Forbes 's  California,  p.  202. 


370    CATTLE HIDES  TALLOW HERDSMEN TRADE. 

men,  who  might  wander  over  the  plains  and  mountains  in  search  of 
their  flocks,  was  peculiarly  suited  to  a  population  emerging  from  the 
nomadic  state;  and  accordingly  we  find  that  the  region  was  well 
stocked,  whilst  the  missions  and  their  dependencies  flourished.  In 
1831,  Mr.  Forbes  tells  us,  that  there  were  in  this  province, — 

216,727         ....     Horned  Cattle, 
32,100     ....         Horses, 
2,844         ....     Mules, 
177     ....         Asses, 

153,455  ....  Sheep, 
1,873  ....  Goats, 
839  ...  .  Swine. 
In  addilion  to  these  there  were  vast  numbers,  roaming  at  large, 
which  were  not  marked  or  branded,  according  to  California  laws, 
as  belonging  to  any  of  the  jurisdictions,  missions,  haciendas  or 
towns.  These  were  hunted  and  slain  to  prevent  their  interference 
with  the  pasturage  of  the  more  useful  and  appropriated  cattle ;  yet 
from  all  this  multitude  but  little  profit  was  gained  except  for  hides 
and  tallow.  Beef  was  not  salted  and  prepared  for  foreign  markets, 
the  dairy  was  altogether  neglected,  and  butter  and  cheese  almost 
unknown.  'In  the  earlier  days  of  the  settlement,  many  thousand 
cattle  were  annually  driven  either  to  the  city  of  Mexico  or  to  the 
interior  provinces  from  the  large  estates  on  the  Pacific ;  but  that 
traffic  was  gradually  abandoned  under  the  habitual  sloth  of  the  peo- 
ple, nor  was  it  until  many  years  after  the  trade  of  the  ports  was 
opened  by  the  war  of  independence,  that  a  comparatively  brisk  in- 
tercourse opened  with  the  Sandwich  Islands  and  our  own  people, 
who  were  willing  to  exchange  their  manufactures  for  the  hides  and 
tallow  of  the  Californians. 

Such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  in  this  primitive  pastoral  region 
when  the  war  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  broke  out. 
For  a  long  time  the  natives  and  settlers  had  been  discontented  with 
their  national  government  that  usurped  the  milder  sway  of  the 
clergy ;  yet  it  is  probable  that  most  of  the  revolutionary  movements 
were  founded  on  personal  ambition  and  avarice  rather  than  patriotic 
impulses,  nor  is  it  likely  that  the  territory  would  have  secured  its  in- 
dependence without  the  aid  of  a  foreign  power.  British  interests 
had  undoubtedly  counselled  the  acquisition  of  California  ;  but  the 
fate  of  war  suddenly  threw  it  into  our  hands,  and  probably  at  the 
very  moment  when  English  subjects  and  the  Mexican  government 
were  combining  to  exclude  us  from  the  positions  on  the  Pacific 


THE    WAR CONDITION    OF    CALIFORNIA    AT    ITS    CLOSE.      371 

which  were  so  necessary  for  our  mercantile  progress  as  well  as  po- 
litical and  maritime  convenience. 

As  soon  as  the  country  was  quieted  by  the  arrangement  which 
Colonel  Fremont  made  with  the  Californian  leaders  at  Couenga,  the 
people  who  had  been  engaged  in  the  brief  local  war  returned  to 
their  peaceful  avocations.  Our  forces  were  stationed  in  small  de- 
tachments, from  Sutter's  fort  to  San  Diego,  while  our  national  ves- 
sels were  anchored  in  the  different  harbors  throughout  the  whole 
coast.  In  the  maritime  towns  the  supreme  authorities  collected 
a  revenue  from  imports  under  the  Contribution  tariff.  Order  was 
promptly  restored  every  where ;  but  the  only  recognized  control 
was  that  of  the  military  government,  which  had  devolved  upon 
Colonel  Mason  at  the  departure  of  General  Kearney. 

Meanwhile  the  emigration  from  the  United  States,  which  amount- 
ed to  about  five  hundred  individuals  during  the  summer  and  fall  of 
1845,  had  been  considerably  augmented  by  recruits  and  adventurers 
during  the  continuance  of  the  war.  These  men,  as  soon  as  hos- 
tilities ceased,  naturally  turned  their  attention  to  the  two  most  im- 
portant subjects  that  engage  an  American's  attention  wherever  for- 
tune may  cast  his  lot.  Their  future  prospects  of  wealth,  and  the 
character  of  their  government,  demanded  immediate  care;  yet 
while  they  relied  upon  Congress  for  the  security  of  their  political 
rights,  they  found,  in  spite  of  California's  renown  for  agricultural 
riches,  that  they  could  only  establish  themselves  successfully  on  the 
Pacific,  or  return  with  fortunes  from  its  shores,  by  a  steady  and 
thrifty  devotion  to  labor. 

Such  was  the  condition  of -California  in  the  spring  of  1848,  when 
the  accidental  discovery  of  gold  which  might  be  rapidly  and  easily 
gathered  in  apparently  inexhaustible  quantities,  changed  not  only 
the  condition  of  the  inhabitants,  but  affected  the  whole  commerce 
of  the  world.  "  The  towns  were  forthwith  deserted  by  their  male 
population,  and  a  complete  cessation  of  the  whole  industrial  pur- 
suits of  the  country  was  the  consequence.  Commerce,  agriculture, 
mechanical  pursuits,  professions, —  all  were  abandoned  for  the  pur- 
pose of  gathering  the  glittering  treasures  which  lay  buried  in  the 
ravines,  gorges  and  rivers  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  productive 
industry  of  the  country  was  annihilated  in  a  day.  In  some  in- 
stances the  moral  perceptions  were  blunted,  and  men  left  their 
families  unprovided,  and  soldiers  deserted  their  posts." ' 

But   the   greediness  of  the  adventurers   soon  taught  them   that 

'  Gwin,  Fremont,  Wright  and  Gilbert :  Memorial  to  Congress  accompanying  the 
Constitution  of  California,  12  March,  1850. 


372  PROGRESS  OF  SETTLEMENT  AND  LAW. 

they  could  not  subsist  on  gold,  and  that  after  the  first  deposits  were 
trathered  in  the  most  accessible  regions,  it  was  necessary  for  them 
to  wander  farther  and  farther  from  the  coast  settlements,  until  they 
were  lost  in  the  lonely  and  barren  glens  of  the  mountains.  There, 
at  the  approach  of  winter,  they  found  themselves  without  the  means 
of  comfort  or  support.  In  the  meanwhile,  however,  the  news  of 
the  discovered  El  Dorado  crossed  the  continent,  and  although  its 
marvels  were  regarded  by  many  as  fabulous,  there  were  others  who 
resolved  at  once  either  to  abandon  their  homes  for  the  wilderness 
or  to  despatch  valuable  cargoes  whose  enormous  profits  would  ab- 
sorb the  miner's  wealth. 

Under  these  mingled  temptations  of  trade  and  discovery,  an  im- 
mense immigration,  chiefly  of  males,  poured  into  California,  not 
only  from  the  United  States  but  from  Oregon,  Mexico,  Chili,  Peru, 
China  and  the  Sandwich  Islands,  all  of  whom  soon  saw  the  neces- 
sity of  once  more  subdividing  human  labors  into  their  ordinary 
channels  as  well  as  proportions ;  and  thus,  while  commerce  took 
the  lead  in  the  ports  and  warehouses,  mechanical  and  professional 
pursuits  equally  assumed  their  relative  importance,  and  partly  re- 
stored the  endangered  balance  of  society. 

Within  a  year  after  this  wonderful  discovery,  the  Californians  felt 
that  they  were  no  longer  outlying  colonists  of  the  American  Union, 
requiring  pecuniary  support  from  the  mother  State  and  military 
protection  against  savages.  Their  lot  was  strangely  reversed  in  the 
history  of  distant  settlements,  for  wealth  had  been  secured  in  ad- 
■vance  of  inhabitants  and  trade.  Gold,  a  large  population,  and  re- 
constructed social  relations,  brought  with  them  the  necessity  for 
firm,  fixed  constitutional  government.  The  fermenting  elements  of 
a  motly  society  were  effervescing,  and  the  substratum  of  order  and 
■civilization  was  rapidly  chrystallizing.  The  dollar  dulled  the  bowie 
knife.  Immense  fleets,  arriving  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  poured 
large  revenues  into  the  national  coffers.  Intelligent  and  industrious 
men  thronged  the  towns  that  sprang  up,  as  if  by  enchantment, 
at  every  advantageous  point.  All  the  great  mercantile  interests 
were  rapidly  developed.  Property  in  land  and  moveables  become 
suddenly  valuable  beyond  the  hopes  or  dreams  of  the  early  settlers. 
Discussions  arose  as  to  titles  and  rights.  Spanish  laws,  uncertain 
in  their  character  or  sanction,  and  American  laws  of  doubtful  appli- 
cation, were  hastily  enforced  by  judges  whom  the  wants  of  the 
time  summoned  to  the  bench  from  uncongenial  pursuits  to  adminis- 
ter justice  in  courts  which  were  quite  as  incongruously  constructed. 


CONSTITUTION  ADOPTED ADMISSION  AS  A   STATE.  373 

In  such  a  state  of  society,  men  were  naturally  anxious  to  know 
their  relations  to  the  Federal  Government  whose  Congress  adjourn- 
ed two  sessions  after  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  without 
legislating  for  the  ceded  territories.  It  might  almost  have  been 
pardoned,  had  California,  feeling  her  power,  position  and  self- 
reliant  resources,  asserted  her  independence  after  so  much  neglect. 
Yet,  in  the  midst  of  all  these  temptations,  and  in  spite  of  our  peo- 
ple's abhorrence  of  a  military  government,  there  never  was  a  more 
beautiful  demonstration  of  national  loyalty  and  affinity  than  in  the 
regular  assemblage,  in  that  remote  quarter  of  the  world,  of  citizens 
from  all  our  States,  and  of  all  classes,  characters,  tempers,  professions 
and  avocations,  to  form  a  republican  constitution  which  would  en- 
sure admission  into  our  Union.  Their  military  governor,  it  is  true, 
had  set  the  example  of  submission  to  the  civil  power,  by  directing 
the  election  of  delegates;  but  the  people  asserted  their  inherent 
right,  independently  of  the  military  authority;  and,  although  they 
acted  in  harmony  with  their  estimable  ruler,  the  constitution  was 
emphatically  the  result  of  popular  impulse  and  judgment  alone. 
The  convention,  thus  assembled,  met  at  Monterey  on  the  1st  of 
September,  1849,  and  closed  its  work  on  the  13th  of  October  by 
submitting  an  excellent  constitution  to  the  people  for  their  adoption. 
The  document  was  forthwith  disseminated  in  Spanish  and  English, 
and  no  attempt  was  made  to  mislead  or  control  public  opinion  in 
relation  to  it.  The  people  gave  it  their  sanction  by  an  overwhelm- 
ing majority,  and  the  legislature  which  was  elected  under  it,  as- 
sembled at  San  Jose,  the  capital  of  the  State,  on  the  15th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1849.  Peter  H.  Burnett,  who  had  been  chosen  first  governor 
of  the  Pacific  Empire  State,  was  duly  inaugurated,  and  on  the  20th 
of  the  same  month,  the  military  governor,  General  Riley,  resigned 
his  power  into  the  hands  of  the  civil  agents  of  the  organized  State. 
After  a  warm  and  embittered  discussion  in  Congress  at  Washing- 
ton, California,  with  all  her  sovereign  rights,  was  finally  admitted 
into  the  North  American  Union,  on  the  9th  day  of  September, 
1850. 

The  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  by  the  transfer  of  Upper  Cali- 
fornia as  it  existed  and  was  bounded  in  May  1848,  conferred  a 
magnificent  domain  upon  the  United  States.  This,  however,  has 
been  subdivided  by  the  action  of  Congress  and  the  Cahfornia  Con- 
vention, and  the  new  Territory  or  Utah  formed  out  of  a  portion  of  it. 
The  original  grant  comprises  the  region  between  the  parallels 
of  32°  50^  and  40°  of  north  latitude,  and  106°  and  124°  west 
longitude,  containing  an  area  of  four  hundred  and  forty-eight 
2v 


374  FORMER  BOUNDARIES THE  GREAT  BASIN UTAH. 

thousand  six  hundred  and  ninety  one  square  miles,  or,  two  Imndrcd 
and  eighty  seven  million,  one  hundred  and  sixty  two  thousand  two 
hundred  and  forty  acres  of  land.  "In  other  words,  our  original 
territory  of  Upper  California,  embraced  twelve  hundred  and  two 
square  miles  more  than  the  States  of  Maine,  Vermont,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin, 
combined !"  ^ 

The  California  Convention,  in  shaping  their  new  State,  thought 
it  advisable  to  diminish  this  unwieldy  empire,  a  large  portion  of 
which  was,  in  truth,  divided  by  the  evident  decree  of  nature  from 
the  Pacific  region.  Between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  at  an  elevation  of  between  four  thousand  and  five  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea  lies  that  singular  geographical  formation  which 
was  first  explored  by  Colonel  Fremont,  and  is  known  as  the  Great 
Basin.  This  is  now  comprehended  in  the  Territory  of  Utah.  It  is 
about  five-hundred  miles  in  diameter,  counting  either  from  north  to 
south  or  east  to  west;  and,  imprisoned  on  all  sides  by  mountains, 
it  has  its  own  complete  system  of  rivers  and  lakes,  all  of  which 
have  no  outlet  to  the  Oceans  on  either  side  of  the  continent.  Its 
steep  interior  hills  and  mountains  are  covered  with  forests,  and  rise 
abruptly  from  a  base  of  ten  or  tw^enty  miles  to  a  height  of  seven  or 
ten  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Many  large  bodies 
of  w^ater  are  confined  in  its  capacious  bosom,  and  among  them  are 
the  Utah  and  Great  Salt  Lakes.  The  shores  of  the  latter,  extend- 
ing in  length  about  seventy  miles,  have  been  seized  and  occupied 
by  the  Mormons  as  the  seat  and  centre  of  their  future  State.  Im- 
mense quantities  of  salt  are  gathered  from  its  banks  when  the  wa- 
ters of  this  inland  sea  recede  during  the  dry  seasons  of  these  lofty 
plains  and  table  lands.  The  waters  of  the  Utah,  however,  are  per- 
fectly fresh  ;  and,  near  the  western  edge  of  the  Basin,  is  found  the 
picturesque  Pyramid  Lake  which  is  also  shut  in  by  mountains,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  depth  and  transparent  purity. 

To  the  southward  of  this,  bordering  the  base  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  within  the  Basin,  is  a  long  range  of  lakes ;  while  many 
copious  rivers  disperse  their  water  throughout  its  ungenial  expanse. 
The  chief  of  these  streams  is  Humboldt  River,  which  rises  in  the 


'  See  the  admirable  "Paper  upon  California"  read  by  that  accomplished  scholar 
J.  Morrison  Harris,  before  the  Maryland  Historical  Society  in  March  1849.  It  has 
been  published  and  forms,  m  the  estimation  ofcompetant  judges,  the  best  resume 
and  most  philosophical  disquisition  upon  California  that  has  been  hitherto  issued 
from  the  press. 


GREAT  SALT  LAKE PYRAMID  LAKE RIVERS. 


375 


mountains  west  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  runs  westwardly  along 
the  northern  side  of  the  Basin  towards  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Cali- 
fornia. It  courses  onward  for  three  hundred  miles,  without  afflu- 
ents, through  a  sterile  plain,  though  the  valley  of  its  own  creation  is 
richly  covered  with  grasses  and  bordered  with  willows  and  cotton 
wood.  This  remarkable  stream  will  become  of  vast  importance  in 
the  travel  towards  California,  for,  rising  towards  the  Salt  Lake,  it 
pursues  nearly  the  direct  route  towards  the  Pass  of  the  Salmon 
Trout  river  through  the  gorges  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  where  at  an 
elevation  of  less  than  three  thousand  six  hundred  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Basin,  the  pathway  descends  into  the  Valley  of  the 
Sacramento,  and  penetrates  the  State  of  California  only  forty  miles 
north  of  Sutter's  original  settlement. 

The  other  known  rivers  of  this  strange  and  partially  explored 
region,  are  the  Carson,  Bear,  Utah,  Nicollet  and  Salmon  Trout, 
most  of  whose  streams,  furnished  by  the  snowy  peaks  of  the  Sierra, 
are  absorbed  in  marshes  and  lakes,  or  return  by  evaporation  to  the 
icy  sources  whence  they  sprang. 


^''i  ,^ 


PYRAMID   LAKE. 


Such  are  the  prominent  features  of  this  vast  Basin  or  Table-land, 
in  the  interior  of  our  continent,  but  as  it  is  now  separated  by  legis- 
lation from  its  former  territorial  adjunct,  we  shall  pass  at  once  to 


376        PRESENT  STATE   BOUNDARIES AREA GEOGRAPHY. 

the  consideration  of  the  present  boundary  of  California.  This,  ac- 
cording to  the  Xllth  article  of  the  State  Constitution,  sanctioned 
by  the  act  of  Congress,  commences  at  the  point  of  intersection  of 
the  42nd  degree  of  north  latitude  with  the  120th  degree  of  longitude 
west  from  Greenwich,  and  runs  south,  on  the  line  of  the  120th  de- 
gree of  longitude  until  it  intersects  the  39th  degree  of  north  latitude; 
thence  a  straight  line  pursues  a  south-easterly  direction  to  the  River 
Colorado,  at  a  point  where  it  intersects  the  35th  degree  of  north 
latitude;  thence,  the  boundary  runs  down  the  middle  of  the  chan- 
nel of  that  river,  to  the  boundary  line  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico,  as  established  by  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo; 
thence,  west  and  along  said  boundary  line  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  and 
extending  therein  three  miles;  thence,  north-westwardly,  following 
the  direction  of  the  Pacific  coast,  to  the  42nd  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude; thence,  on  the  line  of  the  42nd  degree  to  the  place  of  begin- 
ing,  —  including  all  the  islands,  harbors,  and  bays  along  and  adja- 
cent to  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  superficial  area  of  the  State  is  reduced,  according  to  these 
boundaries,  from  the  former  enormous  size,  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty-five  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty  square  miles,  or  ninety- 
nine  millions  five  hundred  and  fifty-two  thousand  square  acres,  ex- 
clusive of  the  islands  adjacent  to  the  coast. 

The  noble  Empire  State  thus  constructed  lies  west  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  and  was  wisely  fashioned  to  avoid  jurisdiction  beyond  the 
mountains.  It  is  strongly  contrasted  in  appearance  with  the  sterili- 
ty of  the  Great  Basin.  Crossing  the  Sierra  Nevada  at  the  Pass 
traversed  by  Fremont  in  February  1844,  the  traveller  finds  himself 
about  four  degrees  south  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  State,  and, 
as  he  looks  westward  down  the  slope  of  the  mountains,  the  whole 
of  California  Hes  at  his  feet.  The  declivities  of  the  Sierra,  with  a 
breadth  of  from  forty  to  seventy  miles,  and  a  length  from  north  to 
south  of  about  five  hundred,  are  heavily  wooded  with  oak,  pine, 
cypress  and  cedar,  while  innumerable  small  streams,  rising  in  the 
melted  snows  of  the  lofty  peaks,  traverse  their  rugged  sides.  These 
ri\iilets  descend  through  glens  and  gorges, — sometimes  barren, 
sometimes  luxuriant, — until  they  disgorge  themselves  into  the  Sac- 
ramento and  San  Joaquin.  The  first  of  these, — rising  in  the  north 
at  the  base  of  the  gigantic  Shastl  which  lifts  its  snowy  diadem  four- 
teen thousand  feet  above  the  sea, — sweeps  southward  towards  the 
thirty-eighth  degree  of  latitude  ;  while  the  second,  oozing  from  the 
fens  and  marshes  of  lake  Tulares,  runs  northward  until  it  mingles 
with  the  Sacramento, — when  both,  swollen  by  their  tributaries  from 


SACRAMENTO SAN    JOAQUIN SHASTL    PEAK.  377 

the  Sierra  Nevada,  are  finally  discharged  into  the  Pacific  by  the  bay 
of  San  Francisco  which  bursts  through  a  gap  in  a  lower  chain  of 
mountains  bordering  the  coast.  This  western  Coast  Range,  averag- 
ing about  two  thousand  feet  in  height,  forms,  with  the  Eastern  Sierra 
Nevada,  the  intermediate  sloping  plain  or  valley  which  is  complete- 
ly drained  by  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin. 


SHASTL    PEAK. 


THE    STATE    OF    CALIFORNIA, 

CONTINUED. 


CONFIGURATION    OF    THE    STATE BAY     OF     SAN     FRANCISCO     AND 

CITY RIVERS    OF    CALIFORNIA CHARACTER    OF     SOIL,   ETC. 

RELATIVE    STERILITY    AND    PRODUCTIVENESS CLIMATE DRY 

AND    WET    SEASONS CAUSES    OF    CHANGE CLIMATE    IN    SAN 

FRANCISCO,    COAST    RANGE    VALLEYS    AND    INTERIOR    VALLEY 

AREA    OF    ARABLE    AND    GRAZING    LAND  PRODUCTIONS  DIS- 
COVERY OF  GOLD ITS    POSITION THE    PLACERES WASHING 

DIGGING THE    MINES CALCULATIONS    AS    TO     THE    YIELD 

OF  THE  MINES GOLD  YIELDED  BY  CALIFORNIA ITS   QUALITY 

QUICKSILVER    MINES COMMERCE POPULATION GROWTH 

OF   CITIES OLD  PRESIDIOS TOWNS LAND  TITLES MISSION 

LANDS CONCLUSION. 

The  State  of  California,  as  at  present  formed  by  its  constitution, 
lies  chiefly  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  sea.  North  and 
south,  it  embraces  about  ten  degrees  of  latitude,  from  32°,  where 
it  touches  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California,  to  42°,  where  it 
bounds  on  Oregon.  East  and  west,  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  the 
sea,  it  will  average,  in  the  central  parts,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles, 
and  in  the  northern,  two  hundred.  The  whole  State  is  thus,  in 
truth,  a  single  geographical  formation  or  great  valley,  though  com- 
monly divided  into  the  valleys  of  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  — 
the  two  great  streams  which  flow  from  the  north  and  south  until 
they  meet  near  the  centre  of  the  State  and  wend  their  way  to  the 
ocean  through  the  bay  of  San  Francisco. 

This  beautiful  arm  of  the  ocean,  which  is  pronounced  by  all  geo- 
graphers to  be  one  of  the  most  wonderful  harbors  in  the  world,  was 
discovered  about  1768  by  a  party  of  Franciscan  friars,  who  be- 
stowed upon  it  the  name  of  their  patron  Saint.  Completely  land- 
locked, it  is  capable  of  sheltering  the  most  extended  commerce. 
Approached  from  the  sea,  a  bold  outline  of  coast  scenery  is  pre- 
sented to  the  observer.  On  the  south,  the  bordering  mountains 
descend  in  narrow  ranges,  lashed  by  the  surf  of  the  Pacific.  On 
the  north,  a  bluff  promontory  rises  full  three  thousand  feet  above 


BAY    OF    SAN    FRANCISCO    AND    CITY.  379 

the  sea,  while,  betwixt  these  points,  walled  in  by  lofty  cliffs  on 
either  side,  a  narrow  strait,  about  a  mile  in  width  and  five  in  length, 
with  a  depth  in  mid  channel  of  forty  and  forty-five  fathoms,  forms 
the  Chrysopolse  or  Golden  Gate.  Beyond  this,  the  wonderful  bay 
of  San  Francisco  opens  like  an  inland  sea  to  the  right  and  left,  ex- 
tending in  each  direction  about  thirty-four  miles,  with  a  length  of 
more  than  seventy  and  a  coast  of  two  hundred  and  seventy-five. 
The  interior  view  of  this  lake-like  estuary  is  broken  in  parts  by 
islands,  some  of  which  are  mere  rocky  masses,  while  others,  green 
with  vegetation,  protrude  from  the  water  for  three  hundred  or  four 
hundred  feet.  The  bay  is  divided  by  promontories  and  straits  into 
three  portions.  At  its  northern  extremity  is  Whaler's  harbor, 
which  communicates  by  a  strait  two  miles  long  with  San  Pablo  bay, 
a  circular  basin  ten  miles  in  diameter ;  at  the  northern  extremity  of 
this  a  strait  of  greater  length,  called  Carquinez,  connects  with  Suis- 
sun  bay,  which  is  nearly  equal  in  size  and  shape  to  San  Pablo,  and 
into  this  bay  the  confluent  waters  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joa- 
quin are  emptied.  A  delta  of  twenty-five  miles  in  length,  divided 
into  islands  by  deep  channels,  connects  the  Suissun  bay  with  the 
valley  of  these  rivers,  into  whose  mouths  the  tide  flows  regularly. 

On  the  bay  of  San  Francisco  is  situated  the  marvellous  city  of 
the  same  name,  which  sprang  up,  almost  "in  a  night,"  and  was 
constructed  of  materials  quite  as  frail  as  those  of  "the  gourd." 
The  town  lies  about  four  miles  from  the  narrows  or  straits  by  which 
the  bay  is  entered,  on  its  west  side,  and  on  the  northern  point  of 
the  peninsula  between  the  southern  portion  of  the  estuary  and  the 
Pacific.  Its  site  is  in  a  cove,  faced  and  protected  at  the  distance 
of  two  miles  by  the  large  island  of  Yerba  Buena.  The  land  rises 
gradually  for  more  than  half  a  mile  from  the  water's  edge,  towards 
the  west  and  south-west,  until  it  terminates  in  a  range  of  hills  five 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  North  of  the  town  is  a  laro-e  bluflf", 
plunging  precipitously  into  the  bay,  in  front  of  which  is  the  best 
anchorage. 

The  most  important  rivers  of  California  are,  of  course,  the  San 
Joaquin  and  Sacramento.  The  San  Joaquin,  running  from  south 
to  north,  is  represented  to  be  navigable  in  some  seasons  for  a  greater 
part  of  its  length,  during  eight  months  of  the  year.  Its  chief  afflu- 
ents, lying  altogether  on  its  eastern  side,  and  pouring  down  from 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  are  the  Lake  Fork,  Acumnes,  Tuolumne,  Stan- 
islaus, Calaveras,  Mukelumne,  Mariposa  and  Cosumnes.  The  Rio 
Colorado  of  the  West  forms  part  of  the  eastern  State  boundary,  from 
the  35th  degree  of  north  latitude  to  the  Mexican  line,  but  it  flows 


380 


UlVEltS    OF    CALIFORNIA. 


through  a  region  at  present  very  little  known  or  valued,  yet  future 
explorations  may  show  it  to  be  valuable.  Its  deep  colored  waters, 
similar  to  those  of  the  Missouri  and  Red  rivers  east  of  the  moun- 
tains, indicate  that  it  probably  has  not  passed  through  an  entirely 
ungenerous  soil.  The  valley  of  the  Gila,  whose  waters  are  clear,  is 
known  to  be  barren. 


SCENERY    ON     THE    GILA. 

The  Sacramento  runs  from  north  to  south  through  an  inclined 
alluvial  prairie,  and  is  described  as  a  deep,  broad  and  beautiful 
stream.  It  flows  through  a  fine  region,  and  is  navigable  for  vessels 
of  considerable  draught  as  high  as  the  setdements  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Sutter's  original  location.  The  principal  tributaries  of 
this  river,  also,  originate  in  the  melting  snows  of  the  Eastern  Sierra, 
and  are  known  as  the  Antelope,  Deer,  Mill  and  Chico  creeks,  and 
the  Butte,  Dorado,  Plumas  or  Feather,  Yuba,  Bear  and  American 
rivers.  Cottonwood  creek  and  some  other  smaller  streams  are  dis- 
gorged into  it  from  the  slopes  of  the  Western  or  Coast  Range. 
The  Trinity  and  a  few  at  the  north,  run  into  the  Pacific. 

In  order  to  comprehend  the  agricultural  and  mineral  value  of 
California,  it  is  necessary  to  glance  at  the  structure  of  the  region. 
Upon  the  forty-first  parallel  of  latitude,  in  a  fork  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 


CHARACTER    OF    SOIL,    ETC.  38l 

vada,  is  a  tract  of  high  table  land,  about  one  hundred  miles  in 
length,  suiTounded  on  all  sides  by  mountains,  and  called  by  Fre- 
mont the  Upper  Valley  of  the  Sacramento.  Here  the  growth  of 
timber  is  vigorous  and  immense,  for  the  climate  and  productions 
are  modified  by  altitude  as  well  as  latitude.  The  Sacramento  river, 
rising  in  the  mountains  at  its  northern  extremity,  reaches  the  Lower 
Valley  through  a  gorge  or  caiion  on  the  line  of  Shastl  Peak,  falling 
two  thousand  feet  in  twenty  miles. 

The  Lower  Valley  is  subdivided,  as  we  have  stated,  into  the 
valleys  of  the  two  great  rivers,  both  of  w^hich  are,  at  most,  only  a 
few  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  gradually  slope 
towards  the  bay.  The  foot  hills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  limiting 
the  valleys,  make  a  woodland  country  diversified  with  undulating 
grounds  and  pretty  vales  or  glens  watered  by  numerous  small 
streams.  These  afford  many  advantageous  spots  for  farms,  occa- 
sionally forming  large  bottoms  of  rich,  moist  land.  Below  39°  of 
latitude,  and  west  of  the  foot  hills,  the  forests  are  limited  to  scat- 
tering groves  of  oak  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  borders  of  streams ; 
or,  of  red  wood  on  the  ridges  and  in  the  gorges.  With  these  ex- 
ceptions, the  whole  region  presents  a  surface  without  shrubbery 
or  trees,  though  a  few  hills  are  shaded  by  dwarfed  and  stunted 
groves  which  may  be  used  as  fuel.  California  is  covered,  how- 
ever, with  various  kinds  of  grasses  and  wdth  wild  oats,  which  grow 
luxuriantly  in  the  valleys  for  many  miles  from  the  coast,  but,  ripen- 
ing early  in  the  season,  they  soon  cease  to  protect  the  soil  from  the 
sun's  scorching  rays.  As  summer  advances,  the  moisture  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  to  a  considerable  depth  in  the  earth,  is  completely 
exhausted,  and  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  parched  plains  and 
naked  hill  sides  becomes  insufferable.  North  of  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco,  between  the  Sacramento  and  Joaquin  valley  and  the 
coast,  the  country  is  cut  up  by  mountain  ridges  and  rolling  hills, 
with  many  fertile,  watered  valleys.  Lnmediately  along  the  coast, 
lie  open  prairies,  belted  or  broken  by  occasional  forests,  and  inter- 
spersed with  extensive  fields  of  wild  grain.  Around  the  southern 
arm  of  the  bay,  a  low,  alluvial  bottom  land,  sometimes  overgrown 
by  oaks,  borders  the  western  foot  of  the  Coast  Range,  terminating, 
on  a  breadth  of  thirty  miles,  in  the  valley  of  San  Jose.  In  this 
neighborhood,  too,  is  the  lovely  valley  of  San  Juan,  which  is  pro- 
bably the  garden  of  the  new  State.  These  two  valleys  form  a  con- 
tinuous plain  of  fifty-five  miles  in  length,  and  from  one  to  twenty 
miles  in  breadth,  opening  with  smaller  valleys  among  the  hills. 
The  balmy  region,  enclosed  between  the  coast  range  and  the  lower 
2w 


382  RELATIVE    STERILITY    AND    PRODUCTIVENESS. 

hills  upon  the  ocean,  is  blessed  with  a  soil  of  singular  fertility,  a 
fine,  dry  atmosphere,  and  a  soft,  delicious  climate.  It  is  wooded 
with  majestic  trees,  covered  with  rich  grasses,  brilliant  with  an  end- 
less variety  of  flowers,  and  produces  profusely  the  fruits  of  the 
temperate  and  tropical  zones. 

South  of  Point  Concepcion  the  climate  and  general  appearance  of 
the  country  are  changed.  From  that  point  the  coast  bends  almost 
directly  east;  the  face  of  the  country  obtains  a  more  southern  expo- 
sure, and  is  sheltered  by  ranges  of  low  mountains  or  hills  from  the 
bleak  violence  of  north-west  storms.  The  climate  accordingly  is 
more  genial,  and  fosters  a  richer  variety  of  productions  than  is 
found  on  the  northern  coasts. 

The  valleys  parallel  with  the  coast  range,  as  well  as  those  w^hich 
extend  eastwardly  in  all  directions  among  the  hills  towards  the 
great  plain  of  the  Sacramento,  are  of  unsurpassed  fertility.  Their 
soil  is  a  deep,  black  alluvian,  and  so  porous  that  it  remains  perfectly 
unbroken  by  gullies,  notwithstanding  the  great  quantity  of  water 
which  falls  into  it  during  the  w^et  season.  The  productiveness  of 
"  California,"  says  Fremont  in  his  Memoir  on  that  region,  published 
in  1848,  "is  greatly  modified  by  the  structure  of  the  country,  and 
under  this  aspect  may  be  considered  in  three  divisions — the  south- 
ern, below  Point  Concepcion  and  the  Santa  Barbara  mountain, 
about  latitude  35°;  the  northern,  from  Cape  Mendocino,  latitude 
41°,  to  the  Oregon  boundary;  and  the  middle,  including  the  bay 
and  basin  of  San  Francisco  and  the  coast  between  Point  Concep- 
cion and  Cape  Mendocino.  Of  these  three  divisions  the  rainy  sea- 
son is  longest  and  heaviest  in  the  north,  and  lightest  in  the  south. 
Vegetation  is  governed  accordingly — coming  with  the  rains  —  de- 
caying where  they  fail.  Summer  and  winter,  in  our  sense  of  the 
terms,  are  not  applicable  to  this  part  of  the  country.  It  is  not  heat 
and  cold,  but  wet  and  dry,  which  mark  the  seasons,  and  the  winter 
months,  instead  of  killing  vegetation,  revive  it.  The  dry  season 
makes  a  period  of  consecutive  drought,  the  only  winter  in  the  veg- 
etation of  this  country,  which  can  hardly  be  said  at  any  time  to 
cease.  In  forests,  where  the  soil  is  sheltered,  in  low  lands  of 
streams  and  hilly  country,  where  the  ground  remains  moist,  grass 
continues  constantly  green  and  flowers  bloom  in  all  months  of  the 
year. 

"In  the  southern  half  of  the  country  the  long  summer  drought 
has  rendered  irrigation  necessary,  and  the  experience  of  the  mis- 
sions, in  their  prosperous  day,  has  shown  that,  in  California,  as 
elsewhere,  the  dryest  plains  are  made  productive,  and  the  heaviest 


CLIMATE  —  DRY  AND  WET  SEASONS.  383 

crops  yielded  by  that  mode  of  cultivation.     With  irrigation  a  suc- 
cession of  crops  may  be  produced  throughout  the  year." 

The  peculiarities  of  the  climate  of  California  are  so  well  explained 
in  a  letter  from  the  Honorable  T.  Butler  King,  that  we  extract 
his  observations  thereon  as  the  most  valuable  portion  of  the  report 
made  by  him  to  the  United  States  Government  in  March,  1850.  ^ 

"  The  north-east  winds,  in  their  progress  across  the  continent, 
towards  the  Pacific  ocean,  pass  over  the  snow-capped  ridges  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  are  of  course  depriv- 
ed of  all  the  moisture  which  can  be  extracted  from  them  by  the 
low  temperature  of  that  region  of  eternal  snow ;  consequently  no 
moisture  can  be  precipitated  from  them,  in  the  form  of  dew  or  rain, 
in  a  higher  temperature  than  that  to  which  they  have  been  subject- 
ed. They  pass  therefore  over  the  hills  and  plains  of  California, 
where  the  temperature  is  very  high  in  summer,  in  a  very  dry  state  ; 
and  so  far  from  being  charged  with  moisture,  they  absorb,  like  a 
sponge,  all  that  the  atmosphere  and  surface  of  the  earth  can  yield, 
until  both  become,  apparently,  perfectly  dry. 

"This  process  commences  when  the  line  of  the  sun's  greatest 
attraction  comes  north  in  summer,  bringing  with  it  vast  atmospheric 
movements.  Their  approach  produces  the  dry  season  in  California, 
which,  governed  by  these  laws,  continues  until  some  time  after  the 
sun  repasses  the  equator  in  September,  when,  about  the  middle  of 
November,  the  climate  being  relieved  from  these  north-east  currents 
of  air,  the  south-west  winds  set  in  from  the  ocean,  charged  with 
moisture — the  rains  commence,  and  continue  to  fall,  not  constantly, 
as  some  persons  have  represented,  but  with  sufficient  frequency  to 
designate  the  period  of  their  continuance,  as  the  wet  season,  from 
about  the  middle  of  November  until  the  middle  of  May,  in  the  lati- 
tude of  San  Francisco. 

"  It  follows,  as  a  matter  of  course,  that  the  dry  season  commences 
first,  and  continues  longest  in  the  southern  portions  of  the  Territory, 
and  that  the  climate  of  the  northern  part -is  influenced  in  a  much  less 
degree  by  the  causes  which  I  have  mentioned  than  any  other  section 
of  the  country.  Consequently,  we  find  that  as  low  down  as  latitude 
39°  rains  are  sufficiently  frequent  in  summer  to  render  irrigation 
quite  unnecessary  to  the  perfect  maturity  of  any  crop  which  is  suited 
to  the  soil  and  climate. 

'  See  T.  B.  King's  Report  on  California,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  59,  31  Cong.  1st  sess 


384  CAUSES  OF  CHANGE CLIMATE  IN  SAN  FRANCISCO, 

"There  is  an  extensive  ocean  current  of  cold  water,  which  com- 
ing from  the  northern  regions  of  the  Pacific,  or,  perhaps,  from  the 
Arctic,  flows  along  the  coast  of  California.  It  arrives  charged  with, 
and  in  its  progress,  emits  air,  which  appears  in  the  form  of  fog  when 
it  comes  in  contact  with  a  higher  temperature  of  the  American  coast, 
as  the  Gulf-stream  of  the  Atlantic  exhales  vapor  when  it  meets,  in 
any  part  of  its  progress,  a  lower  temperature.  This  current  has 
not  been  surveyed,  and,  therefore,  its  source,  temperature,  velocity, 
width,  and  course,  have  not  been  accurately  ascertained. 

"It  is  believed  by  Lieut.  Maury,  on  what  he  considers  sufficient 
evidence  —  and  no  higher  authority  can  be  cited — that  this  current 
comes  from  the  coasts  of  China  and  Japan,  flows  northwardly  to  the 
peninsula  of  Kamptschatka,  and,  making  a  circuit  to  the  eastward, 
strikes  the  American  coast  in  about  latitude  41°  or  42°.  It  passes 
thence,  southwardly,  and  finally  loses  itself  in  the  tropics.     *     * 

"As  the  summer  advances  in  California,  the  moisture  in  the  at- 
mosjihere  and  the  earth,  to  a  considerable  depth,  soon  becomes 
exhausted ;  and  the  radiation  of  heat,  from  the  extensive  naked 
plains  and  hill-sides,  is  very  great. 

"The  cold,  dry  currents  of  air  from  the  north-east,  after  passing 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  descend  to  the  Pacific 
and  absorb  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  to  a  great  distance  from 
the  land.  The  cold  air  from  the  mountains,  and  that  which  accom- 
panies the  great  ocean  current  from  the  north-west,  thus  become 
united,  and  vast  banks  of  fog  are  generated,  which,  when  driven 
by  the  wind,  has  a  penetrating  or  cutting  effect  on  the  human  skin, 
much  more  uncomfortable  than  w^ould  be  felt  in  the  humid  atmosphere 
of  the  Atlantic  at  a  much  lower  temperature. 

"  As  the  sun  rises  from  day  to  day,  week  after  week,  and  month 
after,  month,  in  unclouded  brightness  during  the  dry  season,  and 
pours  down  his  unbroken  rays  on  the  dry,  unprotected  surface  of  the 
country,  the  heat  becomes  so  much  greater  inland  than  it  is  on  the 
ocean,  that  an  under-current  of  cold  air,  bringing  the  fog  with  it, 
rushes  over  the  coast-range  of  hills,  and  through  their  numerous 
passes,  towards  the  interior. 

"Every  day  as  the  heat,  inland,  attains  a  sufficient  temperature,  the 
cold,  dry  wind  from  the  ocean  commences  to  blow.  This  is  usually 
from  eleven  to  one  o'clock ;  and  as  the  day  advances  the  wind  in- 
creases and  continues  to  blow  till  late  at  night.  When  the  vacuum 
is  filled,  or  the  equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere  restored,  the  wind 
ceases  :  a  perfect  calm  prevails  until  about  the  same  hour  the  follow- 
ing day,  when  the  process  re-commences  and  progresses  as  before, 


COAST  RANGE  VALLEYS  AND  INTERIOR  VALLEY.      385 

and  these  phenomena  are  of  daily  occurrence,  with  few  exceptions, 
throughout  the  dry  season. 

"  The  cold  winds  and  fogs  render  the  climate  at  San  Francisco, 
and  all  along  the  coast  of  California,  except  the  extreme  southern 
portion  of  it,  probably  more  uncomfortable,  to  those  not  accustomed 
to  it,  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

"  A  few  miles  inland,  where  the  heat  of  the  sun  modifies  and  soft- 
ens the  wind  from  the  ocean,  the  climate  is  moderate  and  delightful. 
The  heat  in  the  middle  of  the  day  is  not  so  great  as  to  retard  labor, 
or  to  render  exercise  in  the  open  air  uncomfortable.  The  nights  are 
cool  and  pleasant.  This  description  of  climate  prevails  in  all  the 
valleys  along  the  coast-range,  and  extends  throughout  the  country, 
north  and  south,  as  far  eastward  as  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin.  In  this  vast  plain  the  sea  breeze  loses  its  in- 
fluence, and  the  degree  of  heat  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  during  the 
summer  months,  is  much  greater  than  is  known  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
in  the  same  latitudes.  It  is  dry,  however,  and  probably  not  more 
oppressive.  On  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  especially 
in  the  deep  ravines  of  the  streams,  the  thermometer  frequently  ranges 
from  110°  to  115°  in  the  shade,  during  three  or  four  hours  of  the 
day,  from  eleven  until  three  o'clock.  In  the  evening,  as  the  sun 
declines,  the  radiation  of  heat  ceases.  The  cool,  dry  atmosphere 
from  the  mountains  spreads  over  the  whole  country,  and  renders  the 
nights  fresh  and  invigorating.   *********** 

"  These  variations  in  the  climate  of  California  account  for  the  dif- 
ferent conflicting  opinions  and  statements  respecting  it.  A  stran- 
ger arriving  at  San  Francisco  in  summer,  is  annoyed  by  the  cold 
winds  and  fogs,  and  pronounces  the  climate  intolerable.  A  few 
months  will  modify  if  not  banish  his  dislike,  and  he  will  not  fail  to 
appreciate  the  beneficial  effects  of  a  cool,  bracing  atmosphere. 
Those  who  approach  California  overland,  through  the  passes  of  the 
mountains,  find  the  heat  of  summer,  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  greater 
than  they  have  been  accustomed  to,  and  therefore  many  complain  of  it. 

*'  Those  who  take  up  their  residence  in  the  valleys  which  are  situa- 
ted between  the  great  plain  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  and 
the  coast  range  of  hills,  find  the  climate,  especially  in  the  dry  sea- 
son, as  healthful  and  pleasant  as  it  is  possible  for  any  climate  to  be 
which  possesses  sufficient  heat  to  mature  the  cereal  grains  and  edi- 
ble liots  of  the  temperate  zone."  ^ 

'  See  appendix  at  end  of  vol.  for  Meteorological  Observations  in  California. 


386   AREA  OF  ARABLE  AND  GRAZING  LAND PRODUCTIONS. 

We  have  thus  obtained  from  rehable  sources,  a  fair  account  of 
the  soil,  situation  and  climate  of  California,  Avith  the  exception  of 
that  portion  of  the  new  State  lying  to  the  southward  and  eastward 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Soast  Range,  and  between  those 
mountains  and  the  Colorado.  This  district  is  believed  by  experi- 
enced Californians  to  be  mostly  desert ;  at  least,  so  much  of  it  as 
lies  upon  the  usual  emigrant  trail  from  the  Colorado  to  San  Diego, 
and  that  which  is  further  north,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Fremont's 
explorations,  is  known  to  be  of  such  a  character.  Elsewhere, 
however,  in  the  large  valley  between  the  two  great  ranges  of  the 
coast  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  in  the  small  lateral  valleys  that 
pierce  their  rugged  sides  in  every  direction,  are  the  arable  lands  of 
California.  In  a  previous  part  of  this  notice  we  have  shown  that 
the  present  boundaries  of  the  State  give  to  her  155,550  square  miles 
of  superficial  area,  or  99,552,000  square  acres,  exclusive  of  islands 
adjacent  to  the  coast.  If  it  be  granted  that  one  half  of  California 
is  covered  with  mountains  and  that  one  fourth  is  a  desert  waste,  we 
have  still  one  fourth,  or  24,888,000  square  acres  of  arable  land  left 
for  productive  purposes.  Messieurs  Gwin,  Fremont,  Wright  and 
Gilbert,  in  their  Memorial  already  cited,  do  not  hesitate  to  assert, 
that,  after  all  due  allowances,  three-fifths  of  the  whole  territory,  em- 
braced in  the  State  of  California,  will  never  be  susceptible  of  culti- 
vation or  useful  to  man.  This  would  leave,  as  the  remaining  two- 
fifths,  62,220  square  miles,  or  39,820,000  square  acres,  constituting 
the  total  valuable  agricultural  and  grazing  district,  and  distributed 
at  intervals  over  the  whole  surface  within  the  actual  boundaries.  ^ 

Such  are  some  of  tlie  substantial  elements  of  self-reliance  and 
independence  possessed  by  the  new  State,  exclusive  of  her  precious 
metallic  deposits.  The  genial  soil  is  well  adapted  for  the  growth 
of  those  grains  which  are  suitable  for  European  or  North  American 
emigrants.  Wheat,  barley,  rye  and  oats  grow  abundantly,  as  well 
as  potatoes,  turnips,  onions,  and  all  the  roots  known  to  our  gardeners 
and  farmers.  Oats,  of  the  species  cultivated  in  the  Atlantic  States, 
are  annually  self-sown  on  all  the  plains  and  hills  along  the  coast,  and 
as  far  inland  as  the  sea-breeze  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  cli- 
mate. This  fact  indicates  that  similar  grains  may  be  raised  in  the 
same  region  without  resorting  to  irrigation.  Apples,  pears  and 
peaches  may  be  brought  to  great  perfection  under  skilful  culture. 
The  grape,  too,  received  much  attention  in  former  days  at  the  mis- 
sions and  among  the  villagers,  who  produced  an  excellent  fruit,  the 

'  See  Debates  on  the  California  Convention  :  Appendix  p.  xx. 


DISCOVERY    OF    GOLD ITS    POSITION.  387 

wine  of  which  was  abundant  and  delicious.  The  fine  natural  grasses 
and  oats  of  California,  aided  greatly  in  satisfying  and  perpetuating 
the  nomadic  vaquero  or  herdsman,  who  was  the  type  of  the  region 
before  the  cession  to  the  United  States ;  and  it  is  calculated  that 
the  grazing  grounds  in  the  State  are  extensive  enough  to  produce 
many  thousand  more  cattle  than  will  be  required  annually,  for  the 
vast  increase  of  population. 

Notwithstanding  the  union  of  California  with  her  sister  States, 
and  her  favorable  position  for  commercial  purposes,  it  is  scarcely 
probable  that  she  would  so  soon  have  assumed  almost  a  national 
rank,  had  not  a  mechanic,  named  James  W.  Marshall,  who  was 
employed  during  the  latter  part  of  February,  1848,  in  building  a 
saw  mill  for  Captain  John  A.  Sutter  on  the  south  branch  of  the 
American  Fork  or  Rio  de  los  Americanos,  discovered  certain  pieces 
of  gold  glistening  at  the  bottom  of  the  sluice.  In  a  few  days  frag- 
ments to  the  amount  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  were  removed 
from  the  water ;  and  as  the  news  spread  among  the  settlers  all  over 
the  region,  farms,  workshops,  professions  and  homes  were  deserted 
to  explore  the  promised  Dorado. 

The  results  of  this  accidental  discovery  are  already  known  all 
over  the  world.  CaHfornia  has  become  a  centre  of  attraction  for 
population,  wealth  and  trade.  The  grand  auriferous  region  which 
has  thus  far  been  examined  and  partially  drained  of  its  deposits,  is 
between  four  and  five  hundred  miles  long,  and  from  forty  to  fifty 
broad,  following  the  windings  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  New  disco- 
veries will  doubtless  enlarge  this  area,  but  the  present  recognized 
limits  are  the  hills  and  lesser  ranges  rising  from  the  eastern  border 
of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  plain,  and  extending  fifty 
or  sixty  miles  eastward,  until  they  reach  an  elevation  of  nearly 
four  thousand  feet,  where  they  mingle  with  the  main  ridge  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  The  numerous  springs,  originating  in  the  snows 
and  rains  of  the  mountain  summits,  pour  down  their  rugged  sides, 
cutting  deep  channels  or  barrancas  through  the  talcose  slate,  and 
even  down  to  the  quartz  of  which  the  'foot  hills  are  formed.  The 
streams,  in  creating  these  gorge-like  channels,  have  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  quartz  containing  gold,  and,  by  constant  attrition, 
have  cut  or  ground  the  metal  into  fine  flakes,  scales  and  dust.  The 
precious  deposit  is,  accordingly,  found  among  the  sand  and  gravel 
of  the  river  beds  at  those  places  where  the  swiftness  of  the  current 
reduces  it  in  the  dry  season  to  narrow  limits,  or  when  the  streams 
may  be  damed  and  turned.     In  other  places  auriferous  quartz  has 


388       THE    PLACERES WASHING DIGGING THE    MINES. 

cropped  out  on  the  surface  of  the  hills,  mountains  or  gorges,  and 
been  worn  and  smoothed  by  the  action  of  water.  In  these  posi- 
tions the  gold  still  remains  entire  in  pieces  of  all  shapes  and  sizes, 
from  a  single  grain  to  lumps  weighing  several  pounds.  PlacereSj  or 
gold  locations  of  this  latter  character,  are  styled  "  the  dry  dig- 
gings," in  contradistinction  to  the  "washings  "  of  the  streams,  and 
are  spread  over  large  valleys  which  appear  to  have  been  subjected 
to  the  violent  action  of  water.  In  the  dry  diggings  the  operation 
of  extracting  metal  is  performed  by  the  hand  alone  or  with  a  pick- 
axe, hammer  and  knife  ;  but  the  fine  dust  or  scale-gold  of  the  river 
bottoms  is  rescued  from  the  earth  by  washing  the  whole  mass  in 
common  tin  pans,  or  vessels  of  every  kind  that  can  be  substituted. 
The  gyratory  motion  given  to  these  primitive  implements,  removes 
the  finest  portions  of  soil ;  gravel  is  taken  out  by  the  hand,  and  the 
gold  is  left  in  the  vessel  united  with  a  black  ferruginous  sand  not  un- 
like that  used  at  the  writing  desk.  This  residuum  is  left  on  a  board 
or  cloth  to  dry,  when  the  sand  is  blown  off  either  by  the  mouth  or 
a  common  bellows,  leaving  the  gold  whose  gravity  retains  it  on 
the  board.  Much  of  the  very  finest  gold  is,  however,  lost  with  the 
sand  in  this  rude  process.  Vast  numbers  of  rough  machines  re- 
sembling cradles,  are  also  used  in  the  business.  The  rocking  of 
the  cradle  answers  to  the  g}Tation  of  the  pan,  and  as  the  mud,  wa- 
ter and  sand  escape  from  one  end  of  the  machine  through  a  series 
of  small  cross-bars,  the  coarser  particles  of  gold  are  retained  in  the 
instrument.  On  the  head  of  the  cradle  is  a  common  sieve,  upon 
which  the  auriferous  earth  is  placed  ;  water  is  then  poured  on  it, 
and  as  soon  as  the  machine  is  set  in  motion,  the  gold,  sand  and  dust 
are  carried  into  the  body  of  the  cradle,  while  the  gravel  is  rejected. 
But  many  experienced  Californians  do  not  look  to  the  placeres  or 
common  gold  diggings  and  washings  for  the  continuation  of  that 
prosperity  to  which  they  gave  birth.  For  its  permanence  they  rely 
on  the  mines,  whose  development  has  but  just  commenced.  This 
species  of  mineral  riches  Hes  in  that  region  where  the  auriferous 
quartz  has  been  discovered  of  nearly  uniform  richness,  from  the 
40th  to  the  35th  degree  of  latitude,  upon  the  waters  of  the  Feather 
river,  and  on  the  American,  the  Mokelurane,  the  Mariposa,  and 
the  desert  upon  the  south-eastern  borders  of  California,  east  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  In  all  these  localities,  within  a  range  of  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles,  it  is  already  known  to  exist,  and  the  strongest 
analogy  would  carry  it  through  the  remaining  distance.  An  assay 
of  the  ore  of  the  Mariposa  mines,  now  worked  with  a  Chilian  mill, 
aflforded  an  average  yield  from  washing,  of  forty  cents  per  pound 


CALCULATIONS  AS  TO  THE  YIELD  OF  THE  MINES.     389 

avoirdupois  ;  and  afterwards,  by  the  fine  process,  produced  eighty 
cents  to  the  pound  additional ;  making  one  dollar  and  twenty  cents 
per  pound  as  the  average.  Other  assays  exhibit  results  from  ores 
in  various  sections  of  California,  ranging  from  twenty-five  cents  to 
five  dollars  per  pound,  and  that,  too,  in  specimens  where  no  gold 
is  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Rocks  examined  even  within  two 
miles  of  San  Francisco,  have  yielded  gold  to  the  amount  of  ten 
cents  per  pound.  The  result  at  the  Mariposa  mine  has  been  at  the 
rate  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  for  every  ton! 

These  facts,  stated  upon  grave  authority,  may  be  regarded  as 
positive  information  applicable  to  the  whole  extent  of  the  gold  pro- 
ducing quartz.  If  we  apply  the  results  of  the  working  of  a  British 
mining  company,  —  The  San  Juan  del  Rey, —  in  Brazil,  to  these 
assays  and  conclusions,  we  may  estimate  the  consequences  upon 
the  destiny  of  California  and  of  the  world.  The  work  of  this  Brit- 
ish company  has  increased  annually  for  tvventy  years,  and  its  last 
report  dates  on  the  1st  of  March,  1850.  In  this  it  is  stated  that 
69,000  tons  of  ore  were  crushed  and  the  gold  extracted  therefrom; — 
applying  this  to  the  average  yield  of  the  mines  in  California,  the 
result  would  be  over  one  hundred  and  seventy  millions  of  dollars!  * 

Various  speculations  have  been  made  as  to  the  gross  numerical 
summary  of  all  these  discoveries  and  labors  in  a  broiling  sun,  in 
icy  streams  and  under  all  kinds  of  privations ;  yet  no  definite  accu- 
racy can  be  attained.  During  the  earlier  enterprises,  California  was 
a  country  without  law  or  restraint,  for,  all  men,  bent  upon  the  sin- 
gle selfish  task  of  greedily  gathering  gold,  resolved  society  com- 
pletely into  its  original  elements.  Out  of  the  municipalities  and 
villages  there  were  no  associations  except  in  small  bodies  for  mu- 
tual labor  and  protection.  Severe  and  certain  punishment  secured 
the  latter;  but  it  may  be  reasonably  supposed  that  the  collection  of 
statistics  \vas  not  a  duty  willingly  undertaken  by  such  absorbed  in- 
dividuals. Accordingly,  we  are  not  enabled  to  present  more  than 
proximate  calculations  of  the  wealth  given  and  promised  by  Cali- 
fornia to  the  human  race. 

Mr,  King  supposes,  in  his  report,  that  during  the  first  season 
there  were  not  more  than  5,000  employed  in  collecting  gold,  and 
that  their  average  gain  was  one  thousand  dollars  each,  or  an  aggre- 
gate of  five  millions.  But,  in  the  season  of  1849,  the  number  of 
explorers  increased   by  the  vast  influx  from   every  quarter  of  the 

'  See  Senator  Fremont's  speech.  Debates  in  Senate  of  U.  States  on  Friday,  20th 
September,  1850. 

2x 


390  GOLD    YIELDED    BY    CALIFORNIA. 

world.  In  July,  it  was  judged  that  15,000  foreigners  were  in  the 
placeres;  and,  by  the  labors  of  all  classes  united,  the  report  calcu- 
lates that  the  round  sum  of  forty  millions  was  realized  during 
1848  and  1849,  of  which  one-half  was  probably  taken  from  the 
country  by  foreign  adventurers.  Of  the  forty  millions,  twenty  are 
estimated  to  have  been  gathered  from  the  northern  rivers  princi- 
pally, or  from  those  emptying  into  the  Sacramento.  The  southern 
rivers,  or  those  voided  into  the  San  Joaquin,  were,  up  to  that  pe- 
riod, comparatively  unvisited,  and  continued  so  until  towards  the 
season's  close.  There  is  one  river  which,  from  reported  disco- 
veries, though  not  flowing  into  the  great  valley  west  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  is  as  rich  in  gold  as  any  other.  This  is  the  Trinity,  which 
rises  west  of  the  Sacramento's  sources,  and  discharges  into  the 
Pacific  not  far  from  the  fortieth  degree  of  latitude. 

As  commerce  began  to  reassert  her  orderly  sway  in  the  ports 
of  California,  and  as  gold  became  again  subservient  to  the  true 
wants  of  man,  more  attention  was  paid  to  the  collection  of  statis- 
tics relative  to  production  and  export.  The  mint  of  the  United 
States  has  also  enabled  us  to  reach  accurate  partial  results  within  a 
more  recent  period.  By  a  table  furnished  to  Mr.  Hunt  for  publica- 
tion in  his  Merchants'  Magazine,  of  November,  1850,  it  appears 
that  the  gold  dust  shipped  on  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamers,  from  11th 
April,  1849,  to  June  1st,  1850,  was  $13,329,388 ;  while  the  fol- 
lowing were  the  receipts  at  our  mints  : 

RECEIPTS  OF  CVLIFORNIA  GOLD  AT  THE  N.  ORLEANS  AND  PHILADELPHIA  MINTS. 
Year,  (fee.  At  N.  Orleans.    At  Philadelpliia.  Total. 

In  1848 $44,177  $44,177 

Jan.  1st  to  Aug.  31st  1849  .     175,918  1,740,620  1,916,538 

Aug.  31st  to  Jan.  1st  1850       .  489,162  3,740,810  4,229,972 

Jan.  1st  to  Feb.  28th     "  .     938,050  2,974,393  3,912,443 

To  March  31st               "          .  365,869  1,296,.321  1,662,190 

March  31st  to  May  1st  "  .     298,130  1,813,002  2,111,132 

May  1st  to  July  31st      "         .  317,181  6,740,677  7,157,858 

Total, $2,584,310  $18,350,000  $20,934,310 

Of  this  vast  total  receipt  at  the  two  great  mints  of  the  country 
$17,000,000  were  delivered  in  ten  months,  being  at  the  rate  of  more 
than  ,920,000,000  yearly.  Since  January  last,  the  receipts  have  been 
at  the  rate  of  $26,000,000,  per  annum,  and  for  the  last  quarter,  at 
the  rate  of  $32,000,000  per  annum,  showing  a  constantly  aug- 
menting ratio.  Mr.  Edelman,  accountant  of  the  Philadelphia  mint, 
has  prepared  an  essay  to  answer  the  repeated  enquiries  respecting 
the  general  character  of  California  gold  and  its  value  by  the  ounce 


ITS    QUALITY QUICKSILVER   MINES.  391 

troy.  It  appears  from  his  calculations  that  seven-eighths  of  all  the 
deposits  made  at  his  mint  from  the  commenceir  ent  of  the  business 
until  April  1850,  exhibit  a  variation  in  quality  of  only  fifty- cents 
per  ounce  troy,  the  fineness  averaging  between  873|-  thousandths 
and  898f  thousandths.  The  general  fineness  of  nearly  all  the  gold 
brought  to  the  mint  is  886  thousandths ;  the  flat  spangles  of  the 
rivers,  which  bear  a  small  proportion  to  the  mass,  averaging  895 
thousandths.  The  alloy  detected  in  this  gold  is  wholly  silver  tinged 
with  a  small  quantity  of  iron,  and  the  removal  of  the  iron,  dirt  or 
sand  in  melting  occasions  usually  a  loss  in  weight  of  about  3|  per 
cent.  If  the  grains  have  been  cleansed  by  the  magnet  the  loss  is 
reduced  to  about  2|  per  cent.,  but  if  they  are  wet  or  dampened  the 
loss  may  raise  to  even  higher  than  4  per  cent.  California  gold  is 
regarded  as  consisting  of  995  parts  gold  and  silver  in  every  1000 
parts  by  weight,  which  renders  it  necessary  to  separate  these  metals 
before  converting  them  into  coin,  for,  according  to  law,  the  stand- 
ard national  gold  is  so  constituted,  that,  in  1000  parts  by  weight, 
900  shall  be  pure  gold,  and  100  an  alloy,  compounded  of  copper 
and  silver. 

If  the  confident  representations  of  travellers,  miners,  laborers  and 
scientific  men  are  to  be  heeded,  the  California  placeres  and  mines 
will  continue  to  yield  an  increasing  ratio  of  precious  metal ;  but 
time  alone  can  disclose  the  degree  in  which  their  products  will  be 
multiplied.  Should  they  reach  $100,000,000  annually  —  and  they 
may  surpass  that  amount — the  yearly  addition  to  the  gold  of  Europe 
and  America,  will  be  6|  per  cent,  on  $1,800,000,000,  which  is  the 
estimated  amount  of  that  metal  in  those  two  quarters  of  the  globe. 
This  vast  sum  more  than  doubles  the  past  contributions  of  Ameri- 
can mines  during  the  period  of  their  greatest  productiveness.  ^ 

Gold,  however,  is  not  the  only  important  mineral  element  of  Cali- 
fornia's wealth.  Her  quicksilver  mines  are  believed  to  be  numer- 
ous, extensive  and  valuable.  The  cinnabar  ore  which  j^roduces  the 
quicksilver,  lies  near  the  surface,  is  easily  procured  and  is  represent- 
ed to  be  remarkably  productive.  The  mine  of  New  Almaden  is  a 
few  miles  from  the  coast,  midway  between  San  Francisco  and  Mon- 
terey, and  in  one  of  the  ridges  of  the  Sierra  Azul.  The  mouth  of 
this  mine  is  a  few  yards  from  the  summit  of  the  highest  hill  that  has 
been  found  to  contain  quicksilver,  and  is  about  1,200  feet  above  the 
neighboring  plain  and  not  much  more  above  the  ocean.  Its  ore-bed 
seems  to  be  embraced  in  a  greenish  talcose  rock.     By  a  very  rude 

'  Article  by  the  Hon.  Professor  Tucker,  Hunt's  Magazine,  July,  1850,  p.  25 : — See 
Appendix  No.  2. 


392  COMMERCE POPULATION. 

apparatus  the  yield  on  the  spot  was  found  to  be  over  fifty  per  cent. 
Mr.  Charles  M.  Wetherill  of  Philadelphia,  an  accomplished  chemist, 
found  the  percentage  of  mercury  to  be  60,  in  123  grains  which  were 
submitted  to  him;  and  45  in  another  parcel  containing  61|  grains. 
Cinnabar  ore  has  been  found  in  about  twenty  other  places  within  a 
few  miles  of  this  valuable  location. 

It  is  asserted  that  there  are  extensive  veins  of  silver,  iron  and 
copper  in  California;  but  there  is  no  information  sufficiently  accurate 
to  justify  a  statement  of  their  existence  or  value. 

The  commerce  of  California  has  of  course  flourished  in  proportion 
to  her  population  and  wealth.  The  aggregate  of  duties  paid  on 
foreign  merchandize  at  San  Francisco  from  the  12th  of  November 
1849  to  the  31st  of  May  1850,  was  $755,974.  At  the  date  of  the 
information  there  were  in  the  harbor  623  sailing  vessels,  12  steam- 
ers ;  and  140  sail  vessels  and  8  steamers  at  Sacramento  City,  Stock- 
ton and  other  places  up  the  rivers.  Of  this  total  of  783  vessels, 
120  were  foreign  and  663  American.  The  amount  of  tonnage  at 
San  Francisco,  was  1,020,476,  and  100,000  in  towns  and  cities  on 
the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin ;  but  of  this  large  sum  800,000 
tons  at  least  were  unemployed. 

The  singular  history  of  the  unprecedented  rise  in  the  value  of 
merchandize  or  the  necessaries  of  life  in  California  after  the  dis- 
covery of  gold,  is  a  chapter  full  of  surprising  and  fantastical  inci- 
dents, but  our  narrowing  space  denies  us  the  tempting  privilege  of 
recounting  it  in  this  volume. 

In  all  these  calculations  and  estimates  we  must  occasionally 
approach  the  dangerous  domain  of  speculation,  and  in  this  category 
must  we  also  place  most  of  our  information  respecting  the  population 
and  towns  of  California.  Population  is  of  course  constantly  aug- 
menting under  these  great  temptations  for  the  rapid  accumulation  of 
fortune  ;  yet  with  society  in  such  a  transition  state,  the  true  ratios 
or  numbers  of  actual  increase  cannot  be  accurately  obtained. 

According  to  Baron  Humboldt  the  population  of  Upper  Cali- 
fornia consisted  in  1802,  of  7,945  males  and  7,617  females,  or, 
15,562  individuals  attached  to  the  eighteen  missions.  All  other 
classes  whether  whites,  mestizos,  or  mixed  castes,  either  in  the 
Presidios  or  in  the  service  of  the  Monks,  were  estimated  at  1,300. 
This  calculation  would  make  the  whole  population,  at  that  time, 
•exclusive  of  wild  Indians,  16,862.  In  1831,  the  number  of  missions 
had  increased  to  twenty-one,  and  their  Indian  neophytes  were  18,- 
683 ;   all  other  classes  in  the  garrisons  and  among  the  free  settlers 


GROWTH    OF    CITIES OLD    PRESIDIOS TOWNS.  393 

amounted  to  4,342,  making  a  total  of  23,045  ;  nor  is  it  probable  that 
this  number  was  much  augmented  until  after  the  cession  and  sub- 
sequent discoveries.  At  present  it  is  quite  impossible  to  calculate 
closely  the  wild  Indians  of  miserable,  debased  tribes  found  in  the 
mountains,  whose  numbers  are  variously  stated  by  travellers  and 
writers  at  100,000,  and  300,000.  In  the  memorial  of  the  California 
Representatives,  already  cited,  the  population  on  the  1st  of  January, 
1849  is  stated  at  13,000  Californians,  (which  is  probably  too  low  a 
number,)  8,000  Americans,  and  5,000  foreigners,  or  26,000,  in  all 
From  that  date  to  the  11th  April,  the  arrivals  from  sea  and  by  land 
were  judged  to  be  8,000,  while,  according  to  the  Harbor  Masters' 
Record  at  San  Francisco,  22,069  Americans  and  7,000  foreigners 
arrived  there  from  sea,  between  the  12th  of  April  and  the  31st  of 
December  1849.  Of  these  28,269  were  males,  and  only  800  women! 
In  addition  to  the  immigration  by  sea  at  this  single  port,  it  may  be 
presumed  that  not  less  than  1,000  individuals  landed  elsewhere  in 
California  during  the  same  period.  By  Santa  Fe  and  the  Gila  nearly 
8,000  entered  the  country.  From  Mexico  6,000  or  8,000  were  sup- 
posed to  have  come,  though  only  about  2,000  remained  in  the  ter- 
ritory. Adding  to  these  amounts  3,000  deserting  sailors,  and  com- 
puting the  overland  immigration  at  25,000,  we  have  107,000  inhab- 
itants in  California  on  the  1st  of  January  1850.  It  would  probably 
not  be  unsafe  to  add  fifty  thousand  for  the  immigration  of  the  current 
year,  so  as  to  give  the  new  State  at  least  150,000  citizens  in  Jan- 
uary 1851. 

As  gold  and  people  increased  so  miraculously,  the  tents  and  en- 
campments of  the  adventurers  gave  place  to  houses  and  towns  whose 
materials  and  construction  were  almost  as  frail.  When  the  precious 
metal  became  abundant,  land  of  course  quickly  grew  into  speculative 
importance  and  value.  Men  who  disliked  the  toil  of  draining  gold 
from  the  rivers  or  digging  it  among  rocks,  resorted  to  the  easier 
mines  of  their  own  ingenuity,  and,  obtaining  titles  to  advantageous 
locations  near  the  great  rivers,  or,  on  important  bays  and  straits,  laid 
out  magnificent  plans  for  the  gorgeous  cities  of  the  Pacific  Empire. 
The  list  of  some  of  these  "Cities,"  given  in  a  note  at  the  bottom  of 
the  page,  comprises  the  leading  locations  north  of  San  Francisco 
and  on  the  routes  to  the  principal  placeres.^     Some  of  these  towns, 

'  Fremont,  a  town  laid  out  by  Jonas  Spect,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Sacramento 
river,  opposite  the  mouth  of  Feather  river  ;  Vernon,  east  bank  of  the  Feather  river, 
at  its  confluence  with  the  Sacramento  ;  Boston,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Rio  Ameri- 
cano, a  few  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Sacramento  ;  Sacramento  City,  on 
the  site  of  the  celebrated  Sutter's  Fort :  Sutter  City,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Sacra- 


394  LAND    TITLES MISSION    LANDS. 

and  probably  many  more,  will  prosper  permanently  because  they 
are  admirably  situated  to  aid  in  the  development  of  the  interior  of 
the  great  valley  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin.  If  this  valley 
is  to  be  annually  deluged  and  converted  into  a  lake,  as  it  was  last 
year  during  the  rainy  season,  the  agricultural  prosperity  of  Cali- 
fornia must  be  seriously  affected,  and  the  rising  cities  will  probably 
suffer  wdth  it,  unless  the  placeres  and  the  mi7ies  shall  continue  to 
pour  their  bountiful  supplies  into  the  hands  of  all  who  seek  them. 
The  old  Spanish  and  Mexican  towns  and  villages,  will  in  all 
likelihood  continue  to  assert  their  importance.  The  chief  of  these 
are  the  ancient  Presidences  or  Presidios  of  San  Francisco,  Monterey, 
Santa  Barbara  and  San  Diego.  In  all  of  these,  Europeans  and 
Americans  are  already  establishing  themselves  as  residents  who  de- 
sire to  make  California  their  permanent  home.  The  old  pueblos  of 
Los  Angeles,  situated  about  eight  miles  from  the  mission  site  of  San 
Gabriel; —  of  San  Jose  about  fifteen  or  twenty  leagues  from  the  bay 
of  San  Francisco,  near  Santa  Clara ;  —  and  of  Branciforte  about  a 
mile  from  the  mission  of  Santa  Cruz,  and  a  mile  and  a  half  from 
the  bay  of  Monterey,  —  are  still  in  existence,  and  having  been 
built  on  well  selected  sites,  may  flourish  long  after  the  fragile  cas- 
tles erected  in  the  golden  region  have  passed  away  like  the  scenery 
of  a  drama.  The  Monks,  every  where,  possessed  an  instinctive  sa- 
gacity for  nestling  in  the  best  locations,  and  time  will  doubtless  do 
justice  to  their  discretion  in  California. 

The  increased  value  of  land  of  course  indicated  to  our  govern- 
ment the  necessity  of  promptly  examining  the  tides  of  property  in 
California ;  and  accordingly,  Mr.  W.  Carey  Jones,  a  lawyer  ac- 
complished in  the  Civil  and  Spanish  laws,  was  despatched  thither 
by  the  authorities  in  Washington,  to  examine  the  grants  from  the 
Spanish  and  Mexican  governments.  His  full,  learned,  and  satis- 
factory report  has  been  published  by  congress,  and  declares  that 

mento,  a  few  miles  below  Sacramento  City  ;  Webster,  on  the  east  bank  of  Sacra- 
mento river,  nine  miles  below  Sacramento  City  ;  Suisun,  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Rio  Sacramento,  80  miles  from  San  Francisco  ;  Tuolumne  City,  at  the  head  of  navi- 
gation of  the  Tuolumne  river ;  Stanislaus,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Stanislaus  river ; 
Sto;kton,  situated  on  a  slough,  or  sloughs,  which  contain  the  back  waters  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  ;  New  York  upon  the  Pacific,  loca- 
ted at  the  mouth  of  the  San  Joaquin  ;  Benecia,  on  the  Straits  of  Carquinez,  35  miles 
from  the  ocean  ;  Martinez,  opposite  Benecia ;  Napa,  on  the  banks  of  the  Napa  creek, 
40  miles  north  of  San  Francisco  ;  Sonoma,  in  the  valley  of  the  same  name,  three 
miles  from  the  Sonoma  creek  ;  St.  Louis,  on  the  Sonoma  creek ;  San  Rafael,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  ;  Saucelito,  on  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  harbor. 


CONCLUSION.  395 

these  grants  are  mostly  perfect  titles,  or  have  unquestionably  the 
same  equity  as  those  that  are  perfect.  ^ 

All  the  grants  of  land  in  California,  except  pueblo  or  village  lots 
and  some  grants  north  of  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  subsequent  to 
the  independence  of  Mexico,  and  after  the  establishment  of  that 
government  in  California,  were  made  by  the  different  political  gov- 
ernors. These  personages  possessed  the  exclusive  faculty  of  mak- 
ing grants  of  eleven  leagues  or  sitios  to  individuals^  which  were 
valid  when  sanctioned  by  the  Territorial  Deputation  ;  but  coloniza- 
tion grants  to  Empresarios  or  contractors,  required  the  sanction  of 
the  Supreme  National  Authorities. 

The  supposition,  usually  entertained,  that  the  mission  lands  were 
grants  held  as  the  actual  fee-simple  property  of  the  church,  or  of 
the  mission  establishments  as  corporations,  is  entirely  erroneous. 
All  the  missions  in  Upper  California,  established  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  Viceroyal  Government  and  partly  at  its  ex- 
pense, never  had  any  other  right  than  that  of  occupation  and  use, 
the  whole  property  being  either  resumable  or  otherwise  disposable, 
at  the  will  of  the  crown  or  its  representatives.  The  right  of  the 
Supreme  Powers  to  remodel  these  establishments  at  pleasure,  and 
convert  them  into  towns  and  villages,  subject  to  the  known  policy 
and  law  which  governed  settlements  of  that  kind,  was  a  funda- 
mental principle  controling  them  from  the  beginning. 

After  the  secularization  of  the  missions  the  principal  part  of  the 
church  lands  were  cut  off  by  private  grants.  Some  of  them  still 
retain  a  portion  of  their  original  territory,  but  others  have  been  con- 
verted either  into  villages  and  subsequently  granted  in  the  usual 
form  in  lots  to  individuals  and  heads  of  families,  or  have  become 
private  property.  A  few  are  either  absolutely  at  our  government's 
disposal  now,  or,  being  rented  at  present  for  a  term  of  years,  will 
become  so  when  the  tenant's  contracts  expire. 

The  gold  of  California  is  a  modern  disclosure,  though,  probably, 
It  IS  not  altogether  a  modern  discovery.  There  are  documents  in 
existence  which  show  that  it  was  knqwn  to  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment ;  and,  as  far  back  as  1790,  a  certain  Captain  Shelvocke 
obtained  in  one  of  the  ports,  a  black  mould  which  appeared  to  be 
mingled  with  golden  dust.  Specimens  of  California  gold  were 
exhibited  privately  by  the  authorities  in  the  city  of  Mexico  not  long 
before  the  late  war;  and  a  memoir  prepared  by  the  congressional 
representative,  imparts  the  fact  that  it  had  been  taken  in  consider- 

'  Report  upon  the  land  titles  of  California  by  W.  Carey  Jones — ^Washington  1850. 


396  CONCLUSION. 

able  quantities  from  placeres  in  the  neighborhood  of  Los  Angeles. 
It  is  very  likely  that  the  rulers  of  the  Mexican  Republic  were  not 
anxious  to  add  to  the  allurements  which  were  already  enticing  our 
people  to  her  distant  province,  and  silence  was  therefore  preserved 
in  relation  to  its  mineral  wealth. 

California  has,  at  least,  illustrated  one  great  moral  truth  which 
the  avaricious  world  required  to  be  taught.  When  men  were  starv- 
ing though  weighed  down  with  gold,  —  when  all  the  necessaries 
of  life  rose  to  twice,  thrice,  tenfold,  and  even  fifty  or  a  hundred 
times  their  value  in  the  Atlantic  States, — that  distant  province 
demonstrated  the  intrinsic  worthlessness  of  the  coveted  ore,  and 
the  permanent  value  of  every  thing  produced  by  genuine  industry 
and  labor.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  therefore,  that  the  new  State  will  not 
degenerate  into  a  mere  mining  country,  or  be  forever  a  prey  to  that 
feverish  excitement  in  the  pursuit  of  sudden  wealth  which  is  fed  or 
frustrated  by  the  contemptible  accidents  of  luck. 

The  rapid  development  of  the  country  is  almost  unparalleled  in 
national  history ;  and  now  that  a  substantial  government  and  union 
with  our  confederacy  are  secured,  it  remains  to  be  seen  how  the 
social  problem  of  California  will  be  solved,  and  whether  it  possesses 
any  other  elements  than  those  of  gold  and  men  for  the  creation  of 
a  great  maritime  State  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  Wonderful 
order  has  been  preserved  in  spite  of  the  anomalous  condition  of 
the  immigrants;  yet  refined  woman  must  be  content  to  cast  her  lot 
in  that  remote  but  romantic  region,  and,  by  her  benign  influence, 
soften,  enlighten,  and  regulate  a  society  which  is  formed  almost  ex- 
clusively of  men.  In  the  course  of  time  steam  will  open  rapid 
communications  with  the  east,  and  travellers  will  not  be  compelled  to 
pass  either  the  desert  or  those  more  southern  regions  where  the  moul- 
dering ruins  of  Casas  Grandes  denote  the  ancient  seat  of  Indian 
civilization.  The  iron  bands  of  railways,  the  metallic  wires  of  the 
telegraph,  and  the  gold  of  California  will  then  bind  the  whole  grand 
empire  of  the  west  in  a  union,  which  social  sympathies,  commercial 
interests,  national  policy,  and  a  glorious  history  will  make  ever- 
lasting. 

THE     END. 


RUINS     OF    A    CASA    ORANDE. 


398  MKTKOROLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS     IN     CALIFORNIA. 


APPENDIX. 


METEOROLOGICAL   OBSERVATIONS   IN   CALIFORNIA 

Mr.  T.  Butler  King  was  furnished  by  Surgeon  General  Lawson,  United  States 
Army,  with  the  following  thermonvetrical  observations  ; 

At  San  Francisco,  by  Assistant  Surgeon  W.  U.  Parker,  for  six  months,  embracing 
the  last  quarter  of  1847,  and  ib."  first  quarter  of  1848.  The  monthly  mean  tempera- 
ture was  as  follows  :  October,  57°;  November,  49*^  ;  December,  50°  ;  January,  49°  ; 
February,  50°  ;  March,  51°. 

At  Monterey,  in  latitude  36°  38'  north,  and  longitude  121°  west,  on  the  coast, 
about  one  degree  and  a  half  south  of  San  Francisco,  by  Assistant  Surgeon  W.  S. 
King,  for  seven  months,  from  May  to  November  inclusive.  The  monthly  mean 
temperatnre  was  :  May,  56°  ;  June,  59°  ;  July,  62°  ;  August,  59°  ;  September,  58° ; 
October,  60°  ;  November,  56°. 

At  Los  Angeles,  latitude  34°  7',  longitude  west  118°  7',  by  Assistant  Surgeon  John 
S.  Griffin,  for  ten  months,  from  June,  1847,  to  March,  1848,  inclusive.  The  monthly 
mean  temperature  was  :  June,  73°  ;  July,  74°  ;  August,  75°  ;  September,  75°  ;  Oc- 
tober, 69°  ;  November,  59°  ;  December  60°  ;  January,  58°  ;  February,  55°  ;  March, 
58°.     This  place  is  about  forty  miles  from  the  coast. 

At  San  Diego,  latitude  32°  45',  longitude  west  117°  11',  by  Assistant  Surgeon  J. 
D.  Sumrners,  for  the  following  three  months  of  1849,  viz  :  July,  monthly  mean  tem- 
perature, 71°  ;  August,  75°  ;  September,  70°. 

At  Suttersville,  on  the  Sacramento  river,  latitude  38°  32'  north,  longitude  west 
121°  34',  by  Assistant  Surgeon  R.  Murray,  for  the  following  months  of  1849.  July, 
monthly  mean  temperature  73°  ;  August,  70°  ;  September,  65°  ;  October,  65°. 

These  observations  show  a  remarkably  high  temperature  at  San  Francisco  during 
the  six  months  from  October  to  March,  inclusive  ;  a  variation  of  only  eight  degrees 
in  the  monthly  mean,  and  a  mean  temperature  for  the  six  months  of  fifty-one  degrees. 

At  Monterey  we  find  the  mean  monthly  temperature  from  May  to  November,  in- 
clusive, varying  only  six  degrees,  and  the  mean  temperature  of  the  seven  months  to 
have  been  58°.  If  we  take  the  three  summer  months  the  mean  heat  was  60°.  The 
mean  of  the  three  winter  months  was  a  little  over  49°  ;  showing  a  mean  diflTerence, 
on  that  part  of  the  coast,  of  only  11°  between  summer  and  winter. 

The  mean  temperature  of  San  Francisco,  for  the  three  winter  months,  wets  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  at  Monterey — a  little  over  49°. 

As  these  cities  are  only  about  one  degree  and  a  half  distant  from  each  other,  and 
both  situated  near  the  ocean,  the  temperature  at  both,  in  summer,  may  very  reason- 
ably be  supposed  to  be  as  nearly  similar  as  the  thermometer  shows  it  to  be  in  winter. 

The  mean  temperature  of  July,  August,  and  September,  at  San  Diego,  only  3°  53' 
south  of  Monterey,  was  72°.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  same  months  at  Mon- 
terey was  a  little  over  59°  ;  showing  a  mean  ditTerence  of  13°. 

At  Los  Angeles,  40  miles  distant  from  the  coast,  mean  temperature  for  the  three 
summer  months  was  74°  ;  of  the  three  autumn  months,  67°  ;  and  three  winter 
months,  57°.  At  Suttersville,  130  miles  from  the  sea,  and  4°  north  of  Los  Angeles, 
mean  temperature  of  August,  September  and  October,  was  67°.  Mean  tempera- 
lure  of  same  months  at  Monterey,  59° ;  making  a  difference  of  8°  between  the 
coast  and  the  interior,  on  nearly  the  same  parallel  of  latitude. 


APPENDIX   No.   2, 


The  folio-wing  statement  of  the  amount  of  California  gold  deposited  at  all  the 
United  States  Mints,  comprising  those  of  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  Charlotte,  and 
Dahlonega,  from  the  opening  of  the  min^s,  or  discovery  of  the  metal,  until  the  30th 
of  the  month  of  September,  1851,  is  taken  from  the  memoranda  of  Robt.  Patterson 
Esq.,  of  Philadelphia,  son  of  the  late  Director  of  the  Mint. 


Philadelphia.  '.  New  Orleans. 

1 
Charlotte.  1  Dahlonega. 

Total. 

For  the  year  1848 

..         <.          a       1849 

"      "       "     1850 
'  9  mouths  of  1851 

Totals 

44,177.             1,124 

5,481,439;         669,921 

31,667,5U5i      4,575,567 

31,300,105       6,310,462 

45,301 

:                  1      6,151,360 

1      30,0251   36,273,097 

12,805i      70,925    37,694,297 

$68,493,226  §11,557,0741    $12,805  §100,950J$80,164,055 

The  total  production  of  California  gold  since  its  discovery  is  doubtless  over  one 
hundred  millions  of  dollars  in  value,  which,  according  to  official  data  in  my  po.saed- 
sion,  is  equal  to  nearly  one  half  the  total  coinage  of  this  country  in  gold,  silver,  and 
copper,  since  its  separation  from  Great  Britain.  To  the  $80,164,055  received  at  tlie 
U.  S.  Mints,  as  shown  above,  must  be  added  large  amounts  received  here,  and  con- 
sumed by  jewellers,  dentists,  &c. ;  considerable  amounts  shipped  from  San  Francisco 
directly  to  other  countries ;  the  gold  coinage  and  circulation  in  California  itself, 
including  the  $50  pieces  .-tamped  by  the  U.  S.  Assayer ;  the  shipments  received 
here  since  the  1st  of  October,  amounting,  in  New  York  alone,  to  about  $5,000,000, 
and  all  the  gold  dust  now  in  the  hands  of  miners  and  merchants  on  the  Pacific  sidcj 
It  will  be  a  fair  estimate,  therefore,  to  set  down  the  entire  production,  up  to  the 
dose  of  1851,  at  $120,000,000,  at  least. 


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